Pest control formulations and methods of making and using same

ABSTRACT

Compositions useful for controlling pests are disclosed. In some embodiments, the composition includes a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent or an alkyl alcohol solvent. Methods of making and using the compositions are disclosed.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/248,189 filed 8 Apr. 2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/347,219 filed 4 Oct. 2012, which is a 371 of Patent Cooperation Treaty patent application No. PCT/IB2012/055348 filed 4 Oct. 2012, which claims the benefit of each of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/542,993 filed 4 Oct. 2011, US provisional patent application No. 61/622,893 filed 11 Apr. 2012, and US provisional patent application No. 61/652,110 filed 25 May 2012. Each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Some embodiments of the present invention pertain to compositions that can be used to control a variety of pests. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control arthropods, including insects and arachnids, and/or other pests. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control sucking and biting pests, including e.g. bed bugs, mosquitoes, ticks, lice, stink bugs, flies, cockroaches and moths. Some embodiments of the invention pertain to methods of using compositions to control pests. Other embodiments of the invention pertain to methods of making compositions to control pests.

BACKGROUND

Pest control is an ongoing, worldwide problem. In addition to physical means of control that have been practiced for centuries, recent decades have witnessed the emergence and widespread use of hundreds of chemically developed pest repellents, growth regulators, and insecticides. These products are frequently synthetic varieties that are heavily refined prior to commercialization—the list includes the pyrethroids (including deltamethrins, cyfluthryns, etc), DEET and other aromatic amides, organophosphates, and carbamates. The usefulness of these products is often limited by factors including human or environmental toxicity, insect resistance (particularly to pyrethroids; see e.g. Romero, et al.), limited dry residue activity, repellancy and physical factors that make them inappropriate for indoor use (odor, staining). For these reasons and due to shifting consumer preference paradigms, there is consistently increasing demand for naturally-derived, effective pest control products that overcome these limitations.

Some pesticide products are derived from botanical and other natural sources; for example the pyrethrin classes of pesticides are derived from the pyrethrum daisy, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Other examples include: rotenone, from the roots of Derris Lonchocarpus; ryania, from the stems of Ryania speciosa; and neem, derived from the leaves, bark, and seeds of Azadirachta indica.

The tree Azadirachta indica—in some cases referred to as the “Sacred Tree” or “Nature's Pharmacy”—has long been recognized as a source of a wide variety of useful bioactive compounds. Neem derivatives have demonstrated effectiveness as moisturizing agents, and neem oil itself has been used as a treatment for various skin conditions including acne, psoriasis, and chicken pox. It is also used in toothpastes, as a cooking ingredient, and in pharmaceuticals for treating a range of symptoms including fever, earache, headache, and serious disorders including diabetes (see e.g. Brachmachari). In the agricultural sector, neem oil is considered an effective measure for the prevention of mildew, anthracnose, rust, leaf spot, botrytis, scab and alternaria. Its derivatives have furthermore been described variously as antiviral, antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiseptic. Neem oil and many of its derivatives have also been recognized and used as insect control agents and pesticides.

Neem oil contains dozens of active compounds that kill or repel insects, with demonstrated efficacy against more than 375 insect species. It has been recognized as a repellent of many pests, particularly insects (see e.g. Mishra, et al). At higher concentrations it has been reported to demonstrate repellency activity against some insects for up to six months after application (see Daniel & Smith). These repellency characteristics limit neem oil's insecticidal activity significantly, since insects are repelled from exposure to the very product that is intended to be insecticidal. Neem oil has been shown to prevent egg emergence of some insects when eggs are treated directly with the oil: See Rahman & Talukder; Ahmed, et al. Neem oil also demonstrates some prevention of oviposition—of a limited subset of insects—at higher concentrations (including the maize weevil; see M K Khattak).

Current hypotheses suggest that neem oil may work as a contact killer, as an antifeedant, as an insect-growth regulator, a sterilizing agent, a gut motility inhibitor, and/or as a chitin inhibitor. Azadirachtin—an important active ingredient in neem oil—has been reported to exhibit antifeedant, repellent, and sterilization activities under certain circumstances and has been used as a pest control chemical in the past (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,556,562).

Neem oil and azadirachtin are believed to exhibit complex mechanisms of insect toxicity, including activity upon insect hormonal systems, antifeedant activity, anti-molting activity, and numerous other activities. Neem oil as a pesticide is biodegradable and of low environmental and human toxicity, exempted from the tolerance requirement by the United States EPA (see United States Federal Register, Volume 60, Number 239, 1995).

Neem oil has drawbacks as an insecticide. While effective at preventing molting and exhibiting certain repellency characteristics in some insects, reports of neem oil's knockdown capability are inconsistent (see e.g. Schumutter), and some studies find it less efficient at killing adult insects than related pesticides (see Pavela). Neem oil has been reported to have poor dry residue pesticidal activity against most insects, and poor dry residual prevention of egg emergence and prevention of oviposition against most species of insects. Neem oil has an odor that is offensive to some people, and its odor does not rapidly disperse.

Other natural oils have been reported to exhibit insecticidal or other pest control activities, as are described further below.

Pests are a considerable annoyance and health risk. For example, in recent years, there has been a resurgence of bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) infestations across North America. Bed bugs cause sleeplessness, anxiety, and discomfort for those affected. Bed bugs are troublesome pests. They live and hide in crevices, seams and other small spaces. They are hard to identify and locate, and can survive dormant for months or a year or more without feeding. They spread by clinging to suitcases, furniture and clothing which people bring with them from place to place. Current methods of bed bug control are expensive and have various limitations, particularly because products must be applied in sleeping areas where the affected individuals are subject to close and lengthy exposure.

There remains a need for improved pesticides derived from natural sources, pesticides that can prevent egg eclosion, and pesticides having improved dry residue and prolonged residual activity.

SUMMARY

Some embodiments of the present invention provide pesticidal compositions containing a pesticidal natural oil and/or a component thereof and/or a derivative thereof and a polar aromatic solvent. Some embodiments can be used to control pests by killing the pests, preventing or reducing feeding, preventing or reducing oviposition, preventing or reducing eclosion of their eggs, or the like. Some embodiments exhibit effective or more rapid knockdown pesticidal activity, dry residue pesticidal activity and/or prolonged residual pesticidal activity. Some embodiments can be used to control pests including insects and/or arachnids, including arthropods such as bed bugs.

In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil, clove oil, peppermint oil, mint oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, oregano oil, and/or garlic oil and/or derivatives or extracts thereof. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is selected from the group consisting of: aryl ketones, aryl alcohols, aryl-alkyl alcohols, aryl aldehydes, aryl-alkyl ketones, aryl-aryl ketones, aryl carboxylic acids, aryl esters, aryl-alkyl esters, aryl-aryl esters, aryl-alkyl ethers, and aryl-aryl ethers. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is an aryl ketone such as acetophenone. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is acetophenone, benzyl alcohol, ethyl benzoate and/or benzoic acid. In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil and the polar aromatic solvent is acetophenone.

In some embodiments, the combination of the natural pesticidal oil and the polar aromatic solvent exhibits a synergistic level of pesticidal activity. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent is effective as a pesticide wherein each of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent are present at a concentration below the concentration at which the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent would exhibit similar pesticidal activity if used alone. In some such embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is acetophenone and the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, oregano oil and/or garlic oil.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the results of an example testing the prevention of egg emergence by a composition in accordance with one embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 2 shows the results of an example testing the prevention of cockroach egg emergence by a composition according to one example embodiment.

FIG. 3 shows the results of an example testing the ability of a composition in accordance with one embodiment of the invention to kill pyrethroid-resistant bed bugs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Throughout the following description specific details are set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding to persons skilled in the art. However, well known elements may not have been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the disclosure. Accordingly, the description and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative, rather than a restrictive, sense.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value within that stated range is encompassed within embodiments of the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently define a smaller range of values, and it is to be understood that these smaller ranges are intended to be encompassed within embodiments of the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of embodiments of the present invention, preferred methods and materials are described to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the disclosure.

As used herein, “comprises” or “comprising” are to be interpreted in their open-ended sense, i.e. as specifying that the stated features, elements, steps or components referred to are present, but not excluding the presence or addition of further features, elements, steps or components.

As used herein, singular forms include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, “a fungus” also encompasses “fungi”.

As used herein, the term “pest” refers to organisms that negatively affect a host-such as a plant or an animal such as a mammal—by colonizing, damaging, attacking, competing with them for nutrients, or infecting them. This includes arthropods including insects and arachnids, and includes sucking and biting pests such as bed bugs, mites, ticks, ants, lice, and cockroaches.

As used herein, the term “pesticide” refers to an agent that can be used to control and/or kill a pest. The term is understood to encompass, but is not limited to, naturally occurring or synthetic chemical insecticides (larvicides, adulticides, ovicides), acaricides (miticides), fungicides, nematicides, parasiticides, or other control agents. “Pesticidal activity” refers to an agent that is active as a pesticide.

As used herein, the term “egg emergence” means eclosion; that is, the emergence of an adult insect from its pupal case or the hatching of an insect larva/nymph from an egg. “Preventing eclosion” or “preventing egg emergence” means preventing or delaying the emergence of an adult insect from its pupal case or the hatching of an insect larva from an egg.

As used herein, the terms “control” or “controlling” are meant to include, but are not limited to, any killing, growth regulating, or pestistatic (inhibiting or otherwise interfering with the normal life cycle of the pest) activities of a composition against a given pest. These terms include for example sterilizing activities which prevent the production of ova or sperm, including preventing vitellogenesis, cause death of sperm or ova, or otherwise cause severe injury to the genetic material. Further activities intended to be encompassed within the scope of the terms “control” or “controlling” include preventing larvae from developing into mature progeny, modulating the emergence of pests from eggs including deterring oviposition, preventing eclosion, degrading the egg material, suffocation, reducing gut motility, inhibiting the formation of chitin, disrupting mating or sexual communication, and preventing feeding (antifeedant) activity.

As used herein, the terms “repellent” or “repelling” mean that a composition discourages pests from landing or climbing on a surface to which the composition has been applied or incorporated, and/or that the composition encourages pests to move away from a surface to which the composition has been applied or incorporated.

As used herein, a “pesticidal natural oil” is a natural oil or oils, for example derived from plant material, that exhibits pesticidal activity either on its own or in combination with a solvent. As used herein, “pesticidal natural oil” includes other materials derived, extracted or otherwise obtained from natural sources, for example, powdered extracts and the like. A “derivative” is a compound or composition that can be obtained from a natural oil. A “constituent” or “component” is a compound or composition found in a natural oil.

As used herein, “neem oil” refers to oil derived from the seeds, leaves, and bark of Azadirachta indica. Methods for obtaining neem oil, azadirachtin extract or other derivatives purified from neem oil are known in the art. One exemplary method for obtaining neem oil is cold pressing.

As used herein, “dry residue activity” refers to compositions that exhibit pesticidal activity and/or prevention of egg emergence after the composition has dried for at least two hours from application before pests are exposed to the dry reside.

As used herein, “prolonged residual activity” refers to compositions that exhibit pesticidal activity and/or prevention of egg emergence up to several days after the composition has been applied to a target surface. In some embodiments, “prolonged residual activity” refers to compositions that exhibit pesticidal activity and/or prevention of egg emergence up to one week, two weeks, three weeks, or more after the composition has dried after being applied to a target surface. Higher prolonged residual pesticidal activity can extend the interval between re-treatments of a target surface necessary to achieve an acceptable level of pest control. In some embodiments, prolonged residual activity refers to compositions that exhibit pesticidal activity and/or prevention of egg emergence up to at least 7 days, 8 days, 9 days, 10 days, 11 days, 12 days, 13 days, 14 days, 15 days, 16 days, 17 days, 18 days, 19 days, 20 days, or 21 days after treatment, meaning that a composition does not need to be re-applied to pests or to surfaces where the pests or their eggs may contact or otherwise be exposed to the composition for at least such period of time.

As used herein, “knockdown” activity refers to the pesticidal activity of a composition as applied directly to a pest.

As used herein, “surface” or “target surface” includes a surface to which a pesticide is applied or is to be applied. Such surfaces may include, for example, a surface where pests are likely to contact or otherwise be exposed to the applied pesticide, to lay their eggs, and/or a surface that has been or is suspected to be infested by pests.

As used herein, “preventing oviposition” means that a composition prevents a pest from laying eggs, and/or decreases the number of eggs typically laid by a pest.

As used herein, the term “stability” means the ability of a composition to retain its pesticidal activity after application to a surface to be treated with insecticide.

The term “carrier” as used herein refers to an inert material, organic or inorganic, with which an active ingredient can be mixed or formulated to facilitate its application, storage, transport, and/or handling, or improve various product characteristics such as its odor. Commonly used carriers include, but are not limited to, ethanol, isopropanol, other alcohols, and water. Exemplary carriers that can be used in some embodiments of the invention include inert carriers listed by the U.S. EPA as a Minimal Risk Inert Pesticide Ingredients (4A), Inert Pesticide Ingredients (4B) or under EPA regulation 40 CFR 180.950, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, including for example, citric acid, lactic acid, glycerol, castor oil, benzoic acid, carbonic acid, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated amides, glycerides, benzene, butanol, 1-propanol, hexanol, other alcohols, dimethyl ether, and polyethylene glycol.

Some embodiments of the present invention provide compositions and methods useful in the control of a variety of pests. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control insects, arachnids, centipedes, millipedes and/or other pests. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control sucking and biting pests, including e.g. bed bugs, mosquitoes, ticks, lice, fleas, stink bugs, flies, cockroaches, spiders and/or moths.

In some embodiments, the composition includes a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent is effective to control pests. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent is effective to prevent eclosion. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent is effective to prevent oviposition. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent exhibits effective knockdown pesticidal activity. In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent exhibits prolonged residual pesticidal activity.

In some embodiments, the combination of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent exhibits markedly improved ability to control pests and/or an expanded range of pesticidal activity as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent alone. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits improved dry residue pesticidal activity as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent acts to prevent eclosion when used under conditions at which the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone would not prevent eclosion to a significant level. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent acts to prevent oviposition when used under conditions at which the natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone would not prevent oviposition to a significant level. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits improved or more rapid knockdown of a pest as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits prolonged residual pesticidal activity as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone. In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits prolonged residual egg eclosion prevention activity, while the pesticidal natural oil or the solvent used alone do not exhibit such activity.

In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a polar aromatic solvent with a pesticidal natural oil shows a lesser degree of repellency than the repellency of the pesticidal natural oil used alone. Under certain experimental conditions described herein, dry residues of exemplary combinations comprising neem oil in combination with a polar aromatic solvent demonstrate significantly less repellency to adult bed bugs than dry residues of neem oil alone, and exhibit comparable levels of repellency when compared with an untreated control. In some embodiments, the combination of a polar aromatic solvent with a pesticidal natural oil appears to mitigate the repellency of the natural oil (that is, the repellency of a target surface treated with the combination is the same as the repellency of the untreated target surface). In some embodiments, the combination of a polar aromatic solvent with a pesticidal natural oil appears to mitigate the repellency and improve the attractancy of the natural oil (that is, a target surface treated with the combination is more attractive than the untreated target surface and/or the treatment flushes pests out of hiding spots and crevices).

Decreasing the repellency of a pesticidal natural oil (or acting as an attractant) can increase the effectiveness of a composition as a pesticide, because pests will remain in an area where the composition has been applied (or can be flushed from hiding areas), rather than moving to untreated areas due to the repellency of the pesticidal natural oil, and thereby avoiding or being otherwise unaffected by the properties of the pesticide. In some cases, applying a product with a high degree of repellency can result in the spread of pests, as the pests move away from the location to which the repellent product has been applied. For example, if there is a localized infestation of pests in a residential dwelling and a repellent product is applied to the area where the infestation is localized, the pests may simply move on and infest other areas of the residential dwelling.

In some embodiments, a pesticidal composition includes two or more natural oils and a polar aromatic solvent. In some embodiments, at least one of the natural oils is a pesticidal natural oil, and at least one of the natural oils is an oil or fragrance selected to decrease the repellency of the one or more pesticidal natural oils in the composition. In some embodiments, the natural oils are selected to provide a composition that has an odor to humans that is more pleasant than the odor of the pesticidal natural oil alone, i.e. the natural oil is an additive that masks the odor of the pesticidal natural oil.

In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is a ketone. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is a simple ketone. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is acetophenone. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is an alcohol, an aldehyde, an ester, or a carboxylic acid. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is an aryl alcohol, an aryl-alkyl alcohol, an aryl aldehyde, an aryl ketone, an aryl-alkyl ketone, an aryl-aryl ketone, an aryl carboxylic acid, an aryl-alkyl ester, an aryl-aryl ester, an aryl-alkyl ether, an aryl-aryl ether and/or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent has the general structure

wherein R₁ can be:

and wherein R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ and R₆ can independently be —H, or an alkyl group, alkenyl group or alkynyl group, including e.g. a methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, or pentyl group or the like, or an —OH group or a halo functional group, or an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl group including an alcohol, halo or other polar functional group; and wherein R₇ and R₈ can independently be —H or an alkyl group, including e.g. a methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, or pentyl group or the like, or an aromatic group. In some embodiments, R₇ and/or R₈ can have other substituents. In some embodiments R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ and/or R₆ can have other substituents. Other polar aromatic compounds could be used in some embodiments.

In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is benzyl alcohol, 3,4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol, alpha-4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol, 2-phenyl-2-propanol, 1-phenylethanol, benzaldehyde, methylcyclohexylketone, cyclohexanone, p-tolualdehyde, 2-hydroxy-5-methyl benzaldehyde, acetophenone, 4′-hydroxyacetophenone, 4′-methylacetophenone, 2′-hydroxyacetophenone, 2′,4′-dimethylacetophenone, 3′,4′-dimethylacetophenone, propiophenone, 4′-methylproppiophenone, butyrophenone, isobutryophenone, valerophenone, 4′-hydroxyvalerophenone, cyclohexyl phenyl ketone, hexanophenone, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrahydroxybenzophenone, t-tert-butylcyclyhexylacetate, benzoic acid, 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methyl benzoic acid, ethyl benzoate, isobutyl benzoate, benzyl benzoate, propyl-4-hydmxybenzoate, phenol, benzyl methyl ether, butyl phenyl ether, trans-anethole, dibenzyl ether, diphenyl ether, and/or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is replaced by an alkyl alcohol. In some embodiments, the solvent is 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 1-nonanol, 2-butyl-1-octanol, 2-hexyl-1-decanol, 1-dodecanol, 2-octanol, 1-decanol, 2-propanol (IPA), cyclohexanol, and/or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, compositions including a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibit significantly improved stability and dry residue pesticidal activity as compared to the dry residue pesticidal activity of the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent alone. In one embodiment, the addition of acetophenone or other polar aromatic organic solvent to neem oil or a component or derivative of neem oil provides a composition with significantly improved stability and dry residue pesticidal activity as compared with neem oil or its components or derivatives alone, and as compared with the dry residue pesticidal activity of the solvent alone.

In some embodiments, compositions including a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent prevent egg emergence (i.e. prevent eclosion). In some embodiments, compositions including a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibit prolonged egg eclosion prevention activity.

In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits improved prevention of oviposition as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or polar aromatic solvent alone.

In some embodiments, a composition including a combination of a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibits improved or more rapid knockdown of pests as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or polar aromatic solvent alone.

In some embodiments, compositions including a pesticidal natural oil and a polar aromatic solvent exhibit both improved or more rapid knockdown of pests as compared with either the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone, and also prolonged dry residual pesticidal activity.

In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil or a component or derivative thereof. In other embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil, clove oil, peppermint oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, oregano oil, garlic oil, anise oil, geranium oil, lime oil, lavender oil, components or derivatives thereof-including for example geraniol derived from geranium oil and eugenol derived from clove oil—or a combination of the foregoing. Table 1 presents a summary of major chemical constituents (i.e. components) of some pesticidal natural oils. In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is any oil that includes one or more constituents common to two or more of the pesticidal natural oils listed in Table 1 (i.e. neem oil, clove oil, peppermint oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, oregano oil, garlic oil, anise oil, geranium oil, lime oil, lavender oil), including, but not limited to, thymol (found in oregano oil and thyme oil), p-cymene (found in oregano oil and thyme oil), 1,8-cineole (found in thyme oil and peppermint oil), eugenol (found in clove oil and cinnamon oil), limonene (found in cinnamon, peppermint, and lime oil), alpha-pinene (found in cinnamon oil, geranium oil, and lime oil), carvacrol (found in oregano oil, thyme oil, and clove oil), gamma-terpinene (found in oregano oil and lime oil), geraniol (found in thyme oil and geranium oil), alpha-Terpineol (found in thyme oil and anise oil), beta-caryophyllene (found in clove oil, cinnamon oil, and peppermint oil) and linalool (found in thyme oil, cinnamon oil and geranium oil, amongst others). In other embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is any oil having as a constituent one of the following compounds, or a combination of the following compounds: azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbinin, salannin, gedunin, geraniol, geranial, gamma-terpinene, alpha-terpineol, beta-caryophyllene, terpinen-4-ol, myrcenol-8, thuyanol-4, benzyl alcohol, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, alpha-pinene, geranyl acetate, citronellol, citronellyl formate, isomenthone, 10-epi-gamma-eudesmol, 1,5-dimethyl-1-vinyl-4-hexenylbutyrate, 1,3,7-octatriene, eucalyptol, camphor, diallyl disulfide, methyl allyl trisulfide, 3-vinyl-4H-1,2 dithiin, 3-vinyl-1,2 dithiole-5-cyclohexane, diallyl trisulfide, anethole, methyl chavicol, anisaldehyde, estragole, linalyl acetate, geranial, beta-pinene, thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, beta-myrcene, alpha-myrcene, 1,8-cineole, eugenol, limonene, alpha-pinene, menthol, menthone, and linalool.

TABLE 1 Chemical Constituents of Pesticidal Natural Oils Essential oil Chemical Constituent Reference Oregano oil Thymol; Carvacrol; p- Vokou; Toncer cymene; gamma- terpinene; alpha- terpinene; linalool Neem oil Azadirachtin; Nimbin; Schmutterer Nimbinin; Salannin; Gedunin Thyme oil Thymol; Geraniol; Thompson; Granger & Carvacrol; Linalool; Passet; Shabnum & Wagay alpha-Terpineol; p- Cymene; 1,8-Cineole; terpinen-4-ol; Myrcenol- 8; Thuyanol-4; mycrene; gamma-terpinene; alpha- terpinene Clove oil Eugenol; benzyl alcohol; Chaieb carvacrol; thymol; cinnamaldehyde; beta- caryophyllene Cinnamon oil Linalool; cinnamyl Kaul; Simic acetate; beta- caryophyllene; alpha- pinene; eugenol; cinnamaldehyde; limonene Geranium oil Geraniol; linalool; geranyl Rajeswara Rao acetate; citronellol; citronellyl formate; isomenthone; alpha- pinene; 10-epi-gamma- eudesmol Peppermint oil Menthol; Menthone; 1,8- Gochev; Clark & Menary Cineole; Methyl acetate; Limonene; beta- caryophyllene Lavender oil 1,5-Dimethyl-1-vinyl-4- Hui; Shellie, Mondello, hexenylbutyrate; 1,3,7- Marriott, & Dugo Octatriene; eucalyptol; camphor Garlic oil Diallyl disulfide; Methyl Kimbaris; Avato allyl trisulfide; 3-Vinyl- 4H-1,2 dithiin; 3-Vinyl- 1,2 dithiole-5- cyclohexane; Diallyl trisulfide Anise oil Anethole; methyl Santos; Arslan chavicol; anisaldehyde; estragole; alpha- Terpineol; linalool Lime oil d-limonene; linalyl Vasudeva & Sharma; acetate; beta-myrcene; Lota, M.-L. linalool; alpha-pinene; geranial; beta-pinene; gamma-terpinene

Table 2 presents a summary of known pesticidal activities (including insecticidal, acaricidal, ovicidal, larvicidal, reducing growth rate, and pupation inhibiting activities) of constituents of some pesticidal natural oils. In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is any oil or any constituent that comprises a significant quantity (i.e. an amount of the constituent sufficient to provide the natural oil with pesticidal activity) of one or more constituents possessing insecticidal activity. In some embodiments, the pesticidal natural oil is any oil that comprises a significant quantity (i.e. an amount of the constituent sufficient to provide the natural oil with pesticidal activity) of one or more of the constituents listed in Table 2, namely thymol, p-cymene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, linalool, cinnamyl acetate, menthol, d-limonene, anethole, carvacrol, alpha-pinene, geraniol, 1,8-cineole, myrcene, anisaldehyde, alpha-terpineol, alpha-terpinene, gamma-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, and beta-myrcene. In some embodiments, the constituent known to possess insecticidal activity is a terpene, for example, azadirachtin. In some embodiments, the constituent of the pesticidal natural oil is present in an amount greater than or equal to about 0.1%, greater than or equal to about 0.5% or greater than or equal to about 1% by weight in the pesticidal natural oil.

TABLE 2 Known Pesticidal Activities of Chemical Constituents of Pesticidal Natural Oils Compound Activity Reference Thymol Insecticidal activity - Lee M. domestica & S. litura Thymol Insecticidal activity - Franzios D. melanogaster Thymol Insecticidal activity - Traboulsi C. pipiens molestus p-Cymene Antifeedant activity - Salom pales weevil Eugenol Antifeedant activity - Jones & Firn P. Brassicae larvae Eugenol Insecticidal activity - Yang et al. (2003) P. capitis Eugenol Insecticidal activity - Trongtokit A. dirus mosquitoes Eugenol Acaricidal activity - Kim, Kim, & Ahn D. farina & D. pteronyssinus Cinnamaldehyde Insecticidal activity - Samarasekera C. quinquefasciatus & A. tessellatus Cinnamaldehyde Acaricidal activity - Chang & Cheng termites Linalool Insecticidal activity - Yang et al. (2005) P. humanus capitis Linalool Acaricidal activity - Perrucci P. cuniculi Linalool Antifeedant activity - Hummelbrunner, & Isman S. litura Linalool Reduce growth rate - Karr & Coats B. germanica Cinnamyl acetate Insecticidal activity - Yang et al. (2005) P. humanus capitis Menthol Insecticidal activity - Ellis & Baxendale Tracheal mites Menthol Inhibit pupation - Harwood, Modenke, & Berry P. saucia Menthol Insecticidal activity - Tripathi T. castaneum & C. maculatus d-limonene Insecticidal activity - Lee (1997); Don-Pedro M. domestica, D. virgifera, S. litura, some cockroaches d-limonene Reduce growth rate - Karr & Coats B. germanica Anethole Insecticidal activity - Chang & Ahn B. germanica Anethole Insecticidal activity - Fuhremann, et al. house fly Carvacrol Insecticidal activity - Hierro, et al. (2004) A. simplex Carvacrol Insecticidal activity - Traboulsi C. pipiens molestus alpha-pinene Insecticidal activity - Traboulsi C. pipiens molestus Geraniol Insecticidal activity - Hierro A. simplex 1,8-Cineole Acaricidal activity - Miresmailli, Bradbury & house dust mites Isman 1,8-Cineole Reduce growth rate - Obeng-Ofori & Reichmuth Coleopteran sp. 1,8-Cineole Insecticidal activity - Tripathi, Prajanpati, T. castaneum Aggarwal, & Kumar Myrcene Reduce growth rate - Karr & Coats B. germanica Anisaldehyde Insecticidal activity - Marcus & Lichtenstein house fly alpha-Terpineol Reduce growth rate - Karr & Coats B. germanica alpha-Terpineol Antifeedant activity - Hummelbrunner & Isman S. litura alpha-Terpinene Larvicidal activity - Cheng (2009) A. aegypti & A. albopictus gamma-terpinene Larvicidal activity - Cheng (2009) A. aegypti & A. albopictus gamma-terpinene Larvicidal activity - Abbassy A. fabae & S. littoralis Terpinen-4-ol Larvicidal activity - Abbassy A. fabae & S. littoralis p-cymene Larvicidal activity - Cheng (2009) A. aegypti & A. albopictus beta-myrcene Larvicidal activity - Cheng (2009) A. aegypti & A. albopictus

Other oils that can be used, alone or in combination, as additives in some embodiments of the present invention can be derived from plant, animal or mineral sources, or be synthetic. Such oils may be added as a carrier and/or for various other purposes, including but not limited to, improving odor characteristics (e.g. acting as an odor-masking agent), improving properties of another oil used as an active ingredient, decreasing repellency, acting as a pesticide, and/or improving other properties of the formulation. Such oils include, but are not limited to, castor oil, orange oil, citrus oil, cedar oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, licorice oil, mint oil, sweet birch oil, canola oil, jojoba oil, lavandin oil, mustard seed oil, coconut oil, eue oil, tulsi oil, almond oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, germanium oil, sesame oil, tung oil, rosemary oil, basil oil, fennel oil, ginger oil, grapefruit oil, mandarin oil, pepper oil, rose oil, tangerine oil, tea tree oil, tea seed oil, pine oil, cardamom oil, cassia oil, celery oil, cognac oil, dill weed oil, juniper oil, guiacwood oil, parsley oil, pimento leaf oil, apricot oil, origanum oil, betel leaf oil, ajowan oil, chilly seed oil, cubeb oil, curry oil, frankincense oil, ginger grass oil, heeng oil, jamrosa oil, kalaunji oil, citronella oil, linaloe berry oil, ban tulasi oil, bursera oil, lemon balm oil, karanja oil, nepetalactone oil, mink oil, limba pine oil, litsea cubeba oil, lovage oil, manuca oil, marjoran oil, milfoil oil, myrrh oil, myrtle oil, neroli oil, niauli oil, cumin seed oil, cyperiol oil, gereniol oil, grape seed oil, hinoki oil, laurel berry oil, lichen oil, mace oil, mango ginger oil, mentha pipereta oil, paprika oil, vetivert oil, wheat germ oil, macassar oil, mentha citreta oil, musk melon oil, nar kachur oil, palmarosa oil, patchouli oil, pomegranate oil, pumpkin oil, tomar seed oil, cananga oil, avocado oil, safflower oil, abies alba needle oil, ambrette seed oil, amyris oil angelica root oil, artemisia oil, estragon oil, fir needle oil, galangal oil, galbanum oil, olibanum oil, palmarosa oil, patchouli oil, birch oil, cajeput oil calamus oil, cedarwood oil, wintergreen oil, carrot oil, costus oil, cypress oil, davana oil, dwarf pine needle oil, elemi oil, guajac oil, hop oil, hyssop oil, chamomile oil, jasmine oil, larch oil, rosewood oil, oil, sassafras oil, tagetes oil, thuja oil, valerian oil, verbena oil, vervain oil, vetiver oil, wormwood oil, ylang ylang oil, olive oil, evening primrose oil, hazelnut oil, grape core oil, peach core oil, walnut oil, sunflower oil, sandalwood oil, turmeric oil, nutmeg oil, soy oil, vegetable oils, menthol oil, eucalyptol, camphor oil, cedar leaf oil, laurel leaf oil, balsam oil, bay oil, capsicum oil, spearmint oil, caraway seed oil, lemon eucalyptus oil, lemongrass oil, sage oil, pennyroyal oil, bergamot oil, mineral oil, other natural or essential oils, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the additive is an odor-masking agent or compound. In some embodiments, the odor-masking agent is vanilla extract, wintergreen oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, lemongrass oil, and/or a combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the additive can be a second pesticidal natural oil or other material having pesticidal activity, including for example cinnamon oil, thyme oil, clove oil, clove leaf oil, clove bud oil, eugenol, lime oil, oregano oil, thyme oil, mint oil (including spearmint or peppermint oil), or the like.

In some embodiments, the additive can be an odor-neutralizing agent. In some embodiments, the odor-neutralizing agent can be an odor-absorbent material. In some embodiments, the additive is zeolite and/or other natural or synthetic odor absorbent material.

Derivatives and/or components of neem oil that can be used in embodiments of the present invention include, but are not limited to, neem oil, palmitoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, stearic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, campesterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, azadirachtin, meliantriol, melianone, gedunin, amoorastatin, vepinin, marrangin, vilasinin, nimbin, nimbolide, nimbolinin, ohchinolide, nimbolinin, salannin, meliacarpin, meliaquinal, nimbandiol, nimbinene, nimbocinone, kulactone, limocinol, limocinone, nimolinone, azadirachnol, or other triterpenoids, azadirone, azadiradione, azadirachtol, epoxyazadiradione, other compounds derived from neem, related to neem, combinations thereof, and their active derivatives.

Derivatives and/or components of other pesticidal natural oils that can be used in some embodiments of the present invention include, but are not limited to, thymol, p-cymene, 1,8-cineole, eugenol, limonene, carvacrol, menthol, alpha-pinene, linalool, menthone, carvacrol, gamma-terpinene, geraniol, alpha-terpineol, beta-caryophyllene, linalool, gedunin, geranial, terpinen-4-ol, myrcenol-8, thuyanol-4, benzyl alcohol, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, geranyl acetate, citronellol, citronellyl formate, isomenthone, 10-epi-gamma-eudesmol, 1,5-dimethyl-1-vinyl-4-hexenylbutyrate, 1,3,7-octatriene, eucalyptol, camphor, diallyl disulfide, methyl allyl trisulfide, 3-vinyl-4H-1,2 dithiin, 3-vinyl-1,2 dithiole-5-cyclohexane, diallyl trisulfide, anethole, methyl chavicol, anisaldehyde, estragole, linalyl acetate, beta-pinene, beta-myrcene, alpha-myrcene, menthol, and other compounds derived from pesticidal natural oils, combinations thereof, and their active derivatives.

In some embodiments, a surfactant is used in preparing pesticidal compositions or pest control agents. Suitable surfactants can be selected by one skilled in the art. Examples of surfactants that can be used in some embodiments of the present invention include, but are not limited to, ethoxylated castor oil, sodium lauryl sulfate, saponin, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated fatty esters, alkoxylated glycols, ethoxylated fatty acids, carboxylated alcohols, carboxylic acids, fatty acids, ethoxlylated alkylphenols, fatty esters, sodium dodecylsulfide, other fatty acid-based surfactants, other natural or synthetic surfactants, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the surfactant(s) are non-ionic surfactants. In some embodiments, the surfactant(s) are ionic surfactants. The selection of an appropriate surfactant depends upon the relevant applications and conditions of use, and appropriate surfactants are known to those skilled in the art.

In some embodiments, a pesticidal composition includes a suitable carrier. A suitable carrier can be selected by one skilled in the art, depending on the particular application desired and the conditions of use of the composition. Commonly used carriers include ethanol, isopropanol, other alcohols, water and other inert carriers listed by the EPA as a Minimal Risk Inert Pesticide Ingredients (4A), Inert Pesticide Ingredients (4B) or under EPA regulation 40 CFR 180.950, each of which is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety for all purposes including for example, citric acid, lactic acid, glycerol, castor oil, benzoic acid, carbonic acid, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated amides, glycerides, benzene, butanol, I-propanol, hexanol, other alcohols, dimethyl ether, and polyethylene glycol.

Some embodiments of the present invention include combinations of a pesticidal natural oil (and/or components and/or derivatives thereof) with a polar aromatic solvent and one or more other natural oils (plant, animal or mineral derived), synthetic oils, and/or chemical derivatives of any of the foregoing.

In some embodiments, a pesticidal composition comprises a pesticidal natural oil at a concentration of between 0.25% and 99.3% by weight, including any concentration therebetween e.g. 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% by weight; and a polar aromatic solvent at a concentration between 0.7% and 99.75% by weight, including any concentration therebetween e.g. 0.8%, 0.9%, 1.0%, 1.2%, 1.4%, 1.6%, 1.8%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% by weight. In some embodiments, the polar aromatic solvent is present at a concentration between 0.13 mol/kg and 8.3 mol/kg or any value therebetween, e.g. 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, or 8.0 mol/kg.

In some embodiments, a pesticidal composition is provided in which the weight ratio of polar aromatic solvent to pesticidal natural oil is in the range of 1.5:1 to 7:1, or any range therebetween including e.g. 2:1, 2.5:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or 6:1.

One exemplary composition according to one embodiment includes neem oil or a component or derivative thereof, acetophenone or another polar aromatic solvent, and optionally includes a surfactant, additional insect controlling compounds and/or additional natural oils or other products to add fragrance, decrease repellency, or extend the range of insects susceptible to the composition. In one embodiment, such a composition includes neem oil (or a derivative thereof) at a concentration between 0.1% and 99% by weight, including any concentration therebetween e.g. 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% by weight; and acetophenone at a concentration between 0.7% and 99.75% by weight (between 0.13 mol/kg and 8.3 mol/kg or any value therebetween, e.g. 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, or 8.0 mol/kg), including any concentration therebetween e.g. 0.8%, 0.9%, 1.0%, 1.2%, 1.4%, 1.6%, 1.8%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or 99% by weight. The exemplary composition optionally includes one or more surfactants, other pesticidal ingredients, stabilizers, carriers, diluents, or other non-pesticidal ingredients, and/or other natural oils.

In one exemplary embodiment, a pesticidal composition includes a combination of neem oil at a concentration of 5.5% by weight, acetophenone at a concentration of 15.5% by weight, natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) at 8% or 3.4% by weight and a surfactant at a concentration of 5.0% by weight. In one exemplary embodiment, a pesticidal composition includes a combination of neem oil at a concentration of 5.5% by weight, acetophenone at a concentration of 18.25% by weight, and 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight.

Exemplary formulations according to one exemplary embodiment comprising neem oil as the pesticidal natural oil and acetophenone as the solvent were shown to demonstrate improved dry residue pesticidal activity as compared with neem oil alone when neem oil and acetophenone are present at a concentration of at least 0.55% and 1.55% by weight, respectively.

Formulations according to another exemplary embodiment were found to demonstrate improved dry residue prevention of egg eclosion as compared with neem oil alone when neem oil and acetophenone were present at concentrations of at least 0.25% and 0.7% by weight, respectively.

Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control pests such as arthropods, including insects and arachnids. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been demonstrated to have efficacy against arthropods including insects, spiders, centipedes and millipedes, including bed bugs, German cockroaches (Blatlella germanica), Smoky Brown cockroaches (Periplaneta fuliginosa), American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana), cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis), fire ants (Solenopsis Invicta), black carpenter ants (Camponotus pennsylvanicum), pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum), field ants (Formica sp.), moisture ants (Lasius sp.), wood ants (Formica rufa), house flies (Musca domestica), bottle flies (Lucilia sericata), giant silverfish (Ctenolepisma longicaudata), firebrats (Thermobia domestica), bean aphids (Aphis fabae), pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum), termites (Reticulitermes flavipes), granary weevils (Sitophilus granarius), maize weevils (Silophilus zeamais), confused flour beetles (Tribolium confusum), rusty grain beetles (Cryptolestes ferrugineus), dust mites (Dermatophagoides farinae), millipedes (Cylindroiulus caeruleocinctus), centipedes (Strigamia aluminata), sowbugs (Oniscus asellus), orabatid mites (Haplozetes sp.), house crickets (Acheta domestica), black widow spiders (Latrodectus mactans), brown recluse spiders (Loxosceles reclusa), and pharaoh ants (Monomorium pharaonis). Exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been demonstrated to have efficacy in preventing eclosion of arthropod eggs, including bed bug eggs and cockroach eggs. Some embodiments of the present invention can also be used to control insects, arachnids, centipedes, millipedes, or other arthropods upon which they are expected to be effective based on their demonstrated activity, including, but not limited to, whiteflies, mosquitoes, other species of flies, other species of aphids, other species of silverfish, lice, stink bugs, moths, beetles, lace bugs, whiteflies, green peach aphids, western floral thrips, diamondback moths, leafminers, grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, leafhoppers, planthoppers, psyllids, scale insects, midges, fruit flies, earworms, bollworms, armyworms, budworms, hornworms, milkweed bugs, mealy bugs, weevils, botflies, face flies, sawflies, rice bugs, coffee bugs, vegetable bugs, corn borers, horn flies, blowflies, sowbugs, pillbugs, mites, centipedes and millipedes. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been demonstrated to have efficacy against arachnids including cellar spiders, ticks, black widow spiders and brown recluse spiders. Some embodiments of the present invention can also be used to control other arachnids upon which they are expected to be effective, including, but not limited to, scorpions and other species of spiders. This disclosure is intended to encompass uses against all of the above, as well as uses against other pests, including other insects and arachnids, and other organisms including fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes.

In some embodiments, the pesticidal compositions described herein are effective to kill and/or control pests and/or prevent or reduce oviposition and/or prevent or reduce eclosion of their eggs. In some embodiments, the pesticidal compositions described herein exhibit effective knockdown pesticidal activity, exhibit effective dry residue pesticidal activity, and/or exhibit effective prolonged residual pesticidal activity.

In some embodiments, the pesticidal compositions described herein are effective to kill and/or control pests and/or prevent oviposition and/or prevent eclosion of their eggs, or exhibit improved knockdown of a pest, dry residue pesticidal activity, and/or prolonged residual pesticidal activity, when the concentration of each of the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent is below a level at which the pesticidal natural oil and the polar aromatic solvent used alone would be effective to achieve the same function. In some embodiments, the pesticidal compositions described herein exhibit a synergistic pesticidal effect as compared with the activity the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone. In some embodiments, the pesticidal compositions described herein exhibit significantly improved pesticidal effect as compared with the activity of the pesticidal natural oil or the polar aromatic solvent used alone at the same concentration.

Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control pests that affect humans and non-human mammals including bed bugs, cockroaches, lice, fleas, ticks, mites, and scabies. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used to control pests that affect plants or agriculture, such as aphids or nematodes. In some embodiments, any of the compositions described above may be used in any situation in which a neem oil-based insect control agent is currently employed.

In some embodiments, any of the compositions described above are formulated in a deliverable form suited to a particular application. Deliverable forms that can be used in accordance with embodiments of the present invention include, but are not limited to, liquids, emulsions, solids, waxes, dusts, fumigants, aqueous suspensions, oily dispersions, pastes, powders, dusts, emulsifiable concentrates, aerosol sprays, wood fillers, varnishes, wood treatments or furniture oils, detergents, drywall mixtures, fumigating candles, caulking compositions, crack and crevice fillers, sealing agents, and mattress and mattress cover treatments. Suitable deliverable forms can be selected and formulated by those skilled in the art using methods currently known in the art.

Some embodiments of the present invention demonstrate effective insect control activity on surfaces where pest products are commonly employed, including, but not limited to, carpet, mattresses, wood, and fabrics. In some embodiments, any of the compositions described above are applied to surfaces inside a household, residence or building. In some embodiments, any of the compositions described above are applied to mattresses, sheets, fabrics, travel bags/suitcases, carpets, painted or unpainted hard surfaces, wood, flooring, furniture and/or buildings. In some embodiments, any of the compositions described herein are applied outdoors or to plants or agricultural areas and/or inside or outside structures.

Some embodiments are effective as an insect control agent against insects resistant to pyrethrins (eg. pyrethrum) and pyrethroids (eg. deltamethrin, bifenthrin, λ-cyhalothrin, etc.). In some embodiments, the pyrethrin-resistant insect is a bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.).

Some embodiments provide methods of using any of the compositions described above to control populations of bed bugs and/or other insects, arachnids and/or other arthropods. Some embodiments provide a method of killing and/or controlling pests and/or preventing oviposition and/or eclosion of their eggs by applying any of the compositions described herein directly to the pests or to surfaces where the pests or their eggs may contact the composition. Some embodiments provide a method of killing and/or controlling pests and/or preventing oviposition and/or eclosion of their eggs by applying any of the compositions described herein to surfaces so that the pests and/or their eggs will be exposed to the compositions, including to vapors of the compositions. In some embodiments, the pests are insects and/or arachnids and/or centipedes and/or millipedes. In some embodiments, the insects are of the orders Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Blattodea, Isoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, Thysanoptera, Thysanura, Coleopteran, Siphonaptera, Phthiraptera, Psocidae, Dermaptera, Orthoptera. In some embodiments, the pests are bed bugs or cockroaches.

In some embodiments, the methods of use of any of the compositions described herein include combination with natural oils for direct application, dilution with an appropriate carrier for delivery as a ready-to-use spray, or in a concentrated form to be diluted and applied. Other methods of use include, but are not limited to, use as a wood treatment or furniture oil, as a laundry detergent, as a gel or paste which can be applied to a target location, as an oily emulsion, as a dust formulation, as a component in drywall mixture, as a crack or crevice filler or other sealing agent, as a foam, as a component in caulking compositions, as a fumigating mist or candle, as an aerosol or aerosol bomb, or in a formulation employed for treating mattresses or mattress covers. In some embodiments, any of the compositions described above are used for indoor domestic or commercial uses in dispersible forms against a range of pests. Some embodiments of the present invention can be used in dispersible forms in agricultural or other outdoor settings to control pests.

In some embodiments, the compositions described herein exhibit prolonged residual pesticidal activity, enabling a period of time to pass between re-treatment of target surfaces. In one embodiment, pests are killed or controlled, and/or oviposition and/or eclosion are prevented by applying any of the compositions described herein directly to the pests or to surfaces where the pests or their eggs may contact or otherwise be exposed to the composition. A period of time greater than about a week, e.g. 7 days, 8 days, 9 days, 10 days, 11 days, 12 days, 13 days, 14 days, 15 days, 16 days, 17 days, 18 days, 19 days, 20 days, or 21 days or longer is allowed to pass. Then any of the compositions described herein are re-applied to the pests or to surfaces where the pests or their eggs may contact or otherwise be exposed to the composition.

Formulations according to some embodiments can be prepared in any suitable manner. Some embodiments of the present invention provide methods for preparing pesticidal formulations comprising mixing a pesticidal natural oil and/or a component and/or a derivative thereof and a polar aromatic solvent. In some embodiments, the pesticidal formulation is prepared by heating one or more pesticidal natural oils (or component or derivative thereof) in a water bath before any further components of the formulation are added. The surfactant is added to the pesticidal natural oil, and then one or more solvents are added to the pesticidal natural oil, allowing the solvent to solvate the oil before addition of other ingredients. In some embodiments in which the pesticidal natural oil is neem oil, the formulation is prepared by warming neem oil to a temperature of 25-30° C. before any further components of the formulation are added. The solvent is then added to the oil, allowing the solvent to solvate the oil before addition of other ingredients. Optionally, a surfactant and/or other ingredients (which may include additional natural oils or other pesticides) are then added. In some embodiments, a surfactant is added prior to addition of the solvent. Once all ingredients are completely solvated, they may optionally be combined with an appropriate amount of a conventional diluent and/or additional solvent (including different types of solvents). Other carriers, solvents, surfactants, pesticides, fragrances or odor neutralizers may optionally be added. Appropriate preservatives or stabilizers may optionally be added. Materials that encapsulate, hold, transport, delay release or otherwise improve delivery may optionally be added.

EXAMPLES

Embodiments of the present invention are further described with reference to the following examples, which are intended to be illustrative and not limiting.

In the examples that follow, the neem oil used was cold pressed neem seed oil (“C.P. neem oil”).

Example 1—Dry Residue Pesticidal Activity

‘Solution A’ containing neem oil at 5.5% by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight, and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared with isopropyl alcohol (isopropanol) as a carrier diluent. A serial dilution was performed, comprising 100% Solution A, 50% Solution A in isopropanol, 25% Solution A in isopropanol, and 10% Solution A in isopropanol. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to 90-millimeter filter paper substrates in petri dishes. Substrates were allowed to air dry for two hours, then were infested with adult bed bugs (approximately half male and half female). Replicates of each treatment group and of a negative Control Group were tested concurrently. Mortality was observed at specified intervals after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult bed bugs was measured at 1-, 2-, 4-, 8-, 12-, 24-, 48-, 72-, and 480-hour intervals after infestation and compared against controls. The data collected are summarized in Table 3. At levels as low as 0.55% neem oil and 1.55% acetophenone by weight the combination demonstrated improved insecticidal activity over an untreated control group. No insecticidal activity, relative to a control, was observed at concentrations of 0.055% neem oil and 0.155% acetophenone by weight.

TABLE 3 Dry Residue Pesticidal Activity. Control 100% 50% 25% 10% 1% % Concentration C.P. 0 5.5 2.75 1.375 0.55 0.055 Neem Oil (by weight) % Concentration 0 15.5 7.76 3.875 1.55 0.155 Acetophenone (by weight) Time (Hours) % Mortality 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1 0.00 2.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2 0.00 8.71 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 4 0.00 41.14 15.00 2.78 0.00 0.00 8 0.00 90.45 50.83 5.56 0.00 0.00 12 0.00 97.50 65.83 8.06 0.00 0.00 24 0.00 100.00 100.00 43.76 2.50 0.00 48 2.50 100.00 100.00 73.41 5.00 0.00 72 2.50 100.00 100.00 85.68 14.77 0.00 480 16.82 100.00 100.00 97.50 70.91 11.67

Example 2—Dry Residue Pesticide Activity of Various Pesticidal Natural Oils

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations containing a variety of pesticidal natural oils as active ingredients. Solutions were prepared by combining 2.5% by weight of the pesticidal natural oil as active ingredient, 2.5% by weight sodium lauryl sulphate, 5.0% by weight solvent (either ethyl lactate or acetophenone as noted), and an appropriate amount of water as a diluent. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to three replicates of filter paper, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes (Treated Groups). Treated Groups and three replicates of an untreated Control Group were allowed to dry for two hours prior to infestation with a known number of adult bed bugs (approximately half male and half female).

Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 2-, 4-, 8-, 12-, and 24-hour intervals after infestation, and daily thereafter until 33 days after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 4 summarizes the LT₅₀ (the mean point of time at which 50% of bed bugs had died), the 95% Confidence Interval (C.I.) and the maximum mortality observed for each formulation.

TABLE 4 LT₅₀ and Maximum Mortality of Formulations Incorporating Pesticidal Natural Oils. Pesticidal LT₅₀ 95% C.I. Max Natural Oil Solvent (hrs.) (hrs.) mortality Cinnamon Oil Acetophenone 3.06 2.77 to 3.36 100% Cinnamon Oil Ethyl Lactate 14.00 13.16 to 15.05 100% Clove Oil Acetophenone 5.25 4.90 to 5.59 100% Clove Oil Ethyl Lactate 10.58 10.03 to 11.11 100% Eugenol Acetophenone 2.82 2.62 to 3.02 100% Eugenol Ethyl Lactate 9.91 9.73 to 10.12 100% Oregano Oil Acetophenone 2.00 Interrupted** 100% Oregano Oil Ethyl Lactate 9.53 9.32 to 9.74 100% Thyme Oil Acetophenone 3.10 2.89 to 3.31 100% Thyme Oil Ethyl Lactate 17.24 16.65 to 17.82 100% Garlic Oil Acetophenone 11.98 10.86 to 13.09  90% Garlic Oil Ethyl Lactate 24.54 7.27 to 41.80 100% Anise Oil Acetophenone 17.79 16.56 to 19.01 100% Anise Oil Ethyl Lactate 227.8 N/A*  30% Geranium Oil Acetophenone 2.00 Interrupted** 100% Geranium Oil Ethyl Lactate 16.93 N/A*  90% Lime Oil Acetophenone 6.628 N/A*  89% Lime Oil Ethyl Lactate 93.35 N/A*  45% Peppermint Oil Acetophenone 2.18 2.15 to 2.22 100% Peppermint Oil Ethyl Lactate N/A* N/A*  55% Lavender Oil Acetophenone 3.57 3.01 to 4.14 100% Lavender Oil Ethyl Lactate N/A* N/A*  40% Neem Oil Acetophenone 6.54 6.07 to 7.02 100% Neem Oil Ethyl Lactate N/A* N/A*  40% Control None N/A* N/A*  30% *N/A: LT₅₀ and 95% C.I. cannot be reliably calculated for formulations that do not reach 100% maximum mortality **Interrupted: 95% C.I. cannot be reliably calculated when the LT₅₀ is below two hours

Example 3—Dry Residual Insecticidal Activity of Various Solvents

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations including neem oil and various organic solvents including alcohols, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids. Solutions were prepared using 5.5% by weight neem oil; the percent by weight of organic solvent indicated in Table 5 and an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent. The percent by weight of each solvent was varied to ensure a consistent molar quantity of solvent in each solution (final concentration of 1.5 mol/kg). Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowing it to air dry for four hours. A known number of adults were added to each treated dish, four hours after treatment. Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 1-hour, 2-hour, 4-hour, 6-hour, 8-hour, 10-hour, 12-hour, and 24-hour intervals, and at 24-hour intervals thereafter until 14 days after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 5 shows the maximum % mortality of all treated groups and the time taken to reach maximum mortality.

A number of the tested organic solvents, from the classes of alcohols, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids, proved effective in combination with neem oil. Solvents that included at least one aryl group were generally more effective than solvents that contained only alkyl groups. Alkyl aryl ketones were consistently effective solvents, and small aryl alcohols, aryl alkyl alcohols, aryl ketones, and alkyl aryl esters also proved effective in combination with neem oil.

TABLE 5 Maximum % Mortality of Formulations with Differing Organic Solvents. Time to Class of % Solvent Max. Max Solvent Formula (w/w) Compound name Mortality Mortality Alcohol X = CH(OH) Alkyl Alk-X—H alcohols Alk = butyl 11.26 1-Butanol  40% 8 d Alk = hexyl 15.52 1-Hexanol  40% 14 d Alk = ethyl-pentyl 19.78 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 100% 72 hr (Branched alkyl) Alk = decyl 24.04 1-Decanol 100% 11 d Isoalcohols Alk₁-X-Alk₂ Alk₁ = methyl 93.25 2-Propanol (IPA)  40% 6 d Alk₂ = methyl Alk₁ = ethyl 11.26 2-Butanol  20% 14 d Alk₂ = methyl Cyclohexanol 15.21 Cyclohexanol  60% 14 d Aryl alcohol Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 16.42 Benzyl alcohol 100% 24 hr Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk alcohol Ar = phenyl 18.56 1-Phenylethanol 100% 24 hr Alk = methyl Aldehyde and Ketone X = (C═O) Aldehyde Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 16.12 Benzaldehyde 100% 14 d Alkyl-Alkyl Alk₁-X-Alk₂ ketone Alk₁ = methyl 19.17 Methylcyclohexylketone  70% 11 d Alk₂ = cyclohexyl Cyclohexanone 14.91 Cyclohexanone  50% 10 d Aryl-Alkyl Ar—X-Alk ketone Ar = phenyl 18.25 Acetophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = methyl Ar = 4-methylphenyl 20.38 4′-Methylacetophenone 100% 48 hr Alk = methyl Ar = 2,4- 22.51 2′,4′-Dimethylacetophenone 100% 24 hr dimethylphenyl Alk = methyl Ar = 3,4- 22.51 3′,4′-Dimethylacetophenone 100% 48 hr dimethylphenyl Alk = methyl Ar = phenyl 20.69 Propiophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = ethyl Ar = 4-methylphenyl 22.51 4′-Methylpropiophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = ethyl Ar = phenyl 22.51 Butyrophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = propyl Ar = phenyl 22.51 Isobutyrophenone 100% 48 hr Alk = isopropyl Ar = phenyl 24.64 Valerophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = butyl Ar = phenyl 26.77 Hexanophenone 100% 6 d Alk = pentyl Aryl-aryl Ar₁—X—Ar₂ ketone Ar₁ = 2,4- 37.4 2,2′-4,4′ 100% 24 hr dihydroxyphenyl Tetrahydroxybenzophenone Ar₂ = 2,4- dihydroxyphenyl Carboxylic Acids and Esters X = (C═O)—O Alkyl-alkyl Alk₁-X-Alk₂ ester Alk₁ = methyl 13.38 Ethyl acetate  30% 14 d Alk₂ = ethyl Alk₁ = methyl 30.12 2-tert-Butylcyclohexylacetate 100% 96 hr Alk₂ = 2-tert- butylcyclohexyl Aryl acid Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 18.55 Benzoic acid 100% 48 hr Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk ester Ar = 4-hydroxyphenyl 27.27 Propyl-4-hydroxybenzoate 100% 24 hr Alk = propyl

Example 4—Dry Residual Insecticidal Activity of Various Solvents

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations including neem oil and various organic solvents including alcohols, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids. Solutions were prepared using 5.5% by weight neem oil; 1.5 mol/kg organic solvent; and an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent. The percent by weight of each solvent was varied to ensure a consistent molar quantity of solvent in each solution. Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowing it to air dry for four hours in a highly-ventilated room. A known number of adults were added to each treated dish, four hours after treatment. Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 1-hour, 2-hour, 4-hour, 6-hour, 8-hour, 10-hour, 12-hour, and 24-hour intervals, and at 24-hour intervals thereafter until 14 days after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 6 shows the maximum % mortality of all treated groups and the time taken to reach maximum mortality.

A number of the tested organic solvents, from the classes of alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, aldehydes and carboxylic acids, proved effective in combination with neem oil. Solvents that included at least one aryl group were generally more effective than solvents that contained only alkyl groups.

TABLE 6 Maximum % Mortality of Formulations with Differing Organic Solvents. Time to Max. Max Class Formula and ID Compound name Mortality Mortality Alcohol X = CH(OH) Alkyl alcohol Alk-X—H Alk = nonyl 1-Nonanol 100% 48 hr Alk = butyl-heptyl 2-Butyl-1-octanol 100% 8 d (Branched alkyl) Alk = dodecyl 1-dodecanol  90% 14 d Alk = hexyl-nonyl 2-hexyl-1-decanol 100% 14 d (Branched alkyl) Isoalcohol Alk₁-X-Alk₂ Alk₁ = butyl 3-Heptanol  30% 14 d Alk₂ = ethyl Alk₁ = hexyl 2-Octanol 100% 48 hr Alk₂ = methyl Alk₁ = isobutyl 2,6-Dimethyl-4-heptanol  20% 14 d Alk₂ = isobutyl Aryl alcohol Ar—X—H Ar = 3,4-dimethylphenyl 3,4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol 100% 14 d Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk alcohol Ar = 4-methylphenyl Alpha-4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol 100% 24 hr Alk = methyl Ar = phenyl 2-Phenyl-2-propanol 100% 24 hr Alk = dimethyl Aldehyde and Ketone X = (C═O) Aryl-Aldehyde Ar—X—H Ar = 4-methylphenyl p-Tolualdehyde  50% 6 d Ar = 2-hydroxy-5- 2-hydroxy-5-methyl benzaldehyde 100% 24 hr methylphenyl Aryl-Alkyl Ar—X-Alk ketone Ar = 4-hydroxyphenyl 4′-Hydroxyacetophenone  50% 9 d Alk = methyl Ar = 2-hydroxyphenyl 2′-Hydroxyacetophenone 100% 24 hr Alk = methyl Ar = 4-hydroxyphenyl 4′-Hydroxyvalerophenone  70% 14 d Alk = butyl Ar-phenyl Cyclohexyl phenyl ketone  90% 8 d Alk = cyclohexyl Carboxylic Acids and Esters X = (C═O)—O Aryl acid Ar—X—H Ar = 4-hydroxyphenyl 4-Hydroxy benzoic acid 100% 24 hr Ar = 4-hydroxy-3- 4-Hydroxy-3-methyl benzoic acid  60% 14 d methylphenyl Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk ester Ar = phenyl Ethyl benzoate 100% 48 hr Alk = ethyl Ar = phenyl Isobutyl benzoate  90% 8 d Alk = isobutyl Aryl-aryl ester Ar—X—Ar Ar = phenyl Benzyl benzoate 100% 8 d Alk = benzyl Phenol and Ethers X = O Ar—X—H Phenol 100% 24 hr Aryl-Alkyl Ar—X-Alk ether Ar = benzyl Benzyl methyl ether  60% 8 d Alk = methyl Ar = phenyl Butyl phenyl ether 100% 6 d Alk = butyl Ar = 4-(1-propenyl)benzyl Trans-anethole 100% 5 d * Alk = methyl Aryl-Aryl Ar—X—Ar ether Ar₁ = benzyl Dibenzyl ether  90% 7 d Ar₂ = benzyl Ar₁ = phenyl Diphenyl ether 100% 72 hr Ar₂ = phenyl Benzenes Benzene  40% 14 d Toluene  50% 14 d p-Xylene  30% 14 d * Solvent tested in separate study from other solvents in table (under same experimental conditions)

Example 5—Dry Residual Insecticidal Activity

Three solutions were prepared, each containing isopropanol as a carrier diluent: ‘Solution A’ included 5.5% neem oil and 1.25% castor oil by weight; ‘Solution B’ included 18.25% acetophenone and 1.25% castor oil by weight; and ‘Solution C’ included 5.5% neem oil, 18.25% acetophenone, and 1.25% castor oil by weight. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to one replicate of filter paper, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes (Treated Groups). An untreated Control Group was tested concurrently. All Treated Groups were allowed to dry for four hours prior to infestation with adult bed bugs.

Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 2-, 4-, 8-, 10-, and 24-hour intervals after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 7 summarizes the mean mortality data of all formulations at the stated observation intervals.

Solution C demonstrated significantly higher pesticidal activity at all observed intervals, than a solution of acetophenone alone (Solution B) or neem oil alone (Solution A).

TABLE 7 Mean % Mortality of 4-Hour Dry Residues. 10 24 0 HR 2 HR 4 HR 8 HR HR HR Control No Treatment 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Solution A 5.5% Neem Oil 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 9% Solution B 18.25% 0% 0% 0% 0% 10% 70% Acetophenone Solution C 5.5% Neem Oil + 0% 30% 40% 60% 70% 90% 18.25% Acetophenone

Example 6—Dry Residual Insecticidal Activity

Six solutions were prepared, each containing isopropanol as a carrier diluent: ‘Solution A’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 1.8% natural oils (lemongrass oil and wintergreen oil) by weight and 1.25% surfactant by weight; ‘Solution B’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, and 5.0% surfactant by weight; ‘Solution C’ included 5.5% neem oil alone by weight; ‘Solution D’ included 15.5% acetophenone alone by weight; ‘Solution E’ included 1.8% natural oils (lemongrass oil and wintergreen oil) by weight; and ‘Solution F’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight and 15.5% acetophenone by weight. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to filter paper, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes (the Treated Groups). The surfactant used in all solutions was ethoxylated castor oil. Two replicates for each Treated Group and two replicates of a negative Control Group were tested concurrently. Treated surfaces were sealed in petri dishes with a plastic paraffin film and allowed to sit for eight days, then were exposed to the air for four hours, prior to infestation with a known number of adult bed bugs.

Immediately after infestation and at 4-, 8-, 12-, 24-, 48-, 72-, 96-, 120-, and 144-hour intervals after infestation, the number of bed bugs killed in the intervening period was assessed. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. The mean percentage of dead adult bed bugs was calculated for each interval and compared for efficacy to the data from all other formulations. Table 8 summarizes the mean mortality data of all formulations at the stated observation intervals.

Solutions A, B and F demonstrated a similar level of activity, and all demonstrated markedly improved dry residue pesticidal activity relative to both neem oil alone (Solution C), acetophenone alone (Solution D), and essential oils alone (Solution E), particularly at earlier time points between 12 hours and 120 hours.

TABLE 8 Mean % Mortality of 8-Day Old Residues. 0 HR 4 HR 8 HR 12 HR 24 HR 48 HR 72 HR 96 HR 120 HR 144 HR Control 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% Solution A 0.0% 0.0% 10.0% 40.0% 65.0% 75.0% 90.0% 95.0% 95.0% 100.0% Solution B 0.0% 0.0% 10.0% 25.0% 55.0% 80.0% 90.0% 90.0% 90.0% 90.0% Solution C 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% Solution D 0.0% 0.0% 5.0% 5.0% 10.0% 25.0% 45.0% 45.0% 65.0% 80.0% Solution E 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 10.0% 10.0% 25.0% 30.0% 30.0% Solution F 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 35.0% 65.0% 75.0% 90.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Example 7—Prolonged Residual Pesticidal Activity

This example illustrates the prolonged residual pesticidal activity of combinations of neem oil, acetophenone, and a surfactant against bed bugs. The method used in this example facilitates assessment of the necessary retreatment interval for a pesticidal composition. A solution comprising 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared and combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to unpainted plywood surfaces, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes. Five replicates were done as a Treated Group, and five replicates were done for an untreated negative Control Group tested concurrently. All Treated Group substrates were treated at the beginning of the experiment, then allowed to air dry until the time of infestation. On Day 1, adult bed bugs were infested either immediately after treatment, or two hours after treatment (when the substrate was dry). On following days until Day 30, adult bed bugs were infested onto replicates of substrates treated on Day 1 and air-dried since. At intervals after infestation of bed bugs each day, the number of bed bugs killed in the intervening period was counted. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult bed bugs was calculated for each daily interval and compared for efficacy to the data from the Control Group. Table 9 presents the mean mortality data for the Treated and Control Groups for up to 27 days after the Day 1 treatment, at the 15-day observation interval. While the Controls in this experiment exhibited higher than normal mortality (perhaps because of contamination of treated substrates or due to glue epoxy used to seal the substrates within petri dishes) the Treated Groups nonetheless exhibited significantly improved pesticidal activity when compared with the Control Groups for treatments up to 27 days old.

TABLE 9 Mean % Mortality of Compositions after Prolonged Dry Times, Observed 15 Days after Infestation Days After Treatment, Prior to Infestation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 % Treated 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 83 97 87 Mortality Group Control 40 57 40 13 23 43 0 23 7 10 30 37 10 0 Group Days After Treatment, Prior to Infestation 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 % Treated 100 97 100 100 90 87 90 77 N/A* 70 90 53 60 Mortality Group Control 19 36 17 32 33 43 50 13 10 24 12 6 37 Group *N/A = data not available

Example 8—Prevention of Bed Bug Egg Emergence

This example illustrates the prevention of egg emergence by a composition including neem oil, acetophenone, and an appropriate surfactant. The dry residue prevention of bed bug egg emergence is compared among different methods of applying the composition and to an untreated control group. A solution comprising 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared and combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent. Three different Treated Groups were prepared, one of filter paper treated with 1.0 mL of solution and allowed to air dry prior to introduction of eggs, one of filter paper with eggs laid on it treated with 1.0 mL of solution added to the edge of the substrate and allowed to wick underneath the eggs, and one where eggs were sprayed directly. Five replicates for each Treated Group, and five negative Control Group were tested concurrently.

At daily intervals, the numbers of hatched and unhatched eggs present in the sealed dishes were counted and compared to other Treated Groups and the Control Group. One egg was counted as “hatched” for every new nymph present in the petri dish when compared with the prior interval.

While the eggs in the Control Group hatched at the predicted interval of approximately 7 days, none of the eggs in any of the Treated Groups had hatched by experiment's end 16 days post-treatment. No difference was observed between spray treatments, wet treatments, and dry residue treatments. FIG. 1 shows the egg emergence data of the treated groups at the stated daily intervals (the three treated groups having identical data sets) as compared to the Untreated Control.

Table 10 summarizes the prolonged dry residual egg emergence data from a similar study of the same formulation as described above, over a longer period of time. 1.0 mL of the composition was dried for two hours prior to introduction of bed bug eggs, and completely prevented egg eclosion up to 19 days after its application to a filter paper substrate.

TABLE 10 Mean % Bed Bug Egg Eclosion Observed 15 days after Infestation. Days After Treatment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 % Treated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Eclosion Group Control 59 56 39 49 51 33 55 53 66 81 72 70 67 Group Days After Treatment 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 % Treated 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 27 33 N/A* 100 100 Eclosion Group Control 100 100 99 100 100 100 100 100 97 100 100 100 Group *N/A = data not available

Example 9—Prevention of Cockroach Egg Emergence

The dry residue prevention of cockroach egg emergence was compared by exposing cockroach eggs (grouped as oothecae) to the composition and to an untreated control substrate. A solution comprising 22% neem oil by weight, 73% acetophenone by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared and applied to filter paper at a rate of 800 ft²/gal of solution. Following air-drying, treated paper was sealed inside plastic tubes (10 cm×3 cm diam.) along with gravid female cockroaches containing eggs. Female cockroaches and eggs were exposed to such treated or control (untreated) papers for 15 days after initial treatment. Ten replicates for each Treated Group, and ten negative Control Group were tested concurrently.

At daily intervals, the numbers of hatched and unhatched eggs present in the sealed tubes were counted and compared to the Control Group. One egg from each ootheca was counted as “hatched” for every new nymph present in the tube when compared with the prior interval.

While the eggs in the Control Group hatched at the predicted interval of 1-14 days, none of the eggs in the Treated Group had hatched by experiment's end, 14 days post-treatment. FIG. 2 shows the egg emergence data of the treated group at the stated daily intervals as compared to the Untreated Control.

Both cockroaches and bed bugs are arthropods. Cockroaches belong to a more primitive taxonomic order, Blattellidae (although some commentators consider cockroaches to belong to the order Orthoptera), than bed bugs, which belong to the order Hemiptera. Both cockroaches and bed bugs reproduce relatively quickly compared to other arthropods. Without being bound by theory, this rapid reproduction may contribute to the ability of these pests to survive insecticide treatments. Preventing egg emergence of bed bugs, cockroaches and other arthropods can therefore potentially assist in eliminating these pests.

Example 10—Prevention of Oviposition and Egg Emergence in Bed Bugs

This example illustrates the prevention of egg emergence of a combination of neem oil and acetophenone, as compared with neem oil alone.

A concentrated solution, ‘Solution B,’ including 25% neem oil by weight, 70% acetophenone by weight, and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared. Dilutions of this concentrated solution were prepared, each containing ethanol as the carrier diluent. Dilutions containing 15% of Solution B (final concentration of 3.75% neem oil and 10.5% acetophenone by weight)—or greater—killed 100% of adults infested on the treated surface and no eggs were laid. Dilutions of 10% or less of Solution B were insufficient to kill adult bed bugs before eggs were laid on the treated substrates in these groups; these dilutions were monitored for oviposition and eclosion, and are compared to positive control treatments of neem oil alone (10% solution in diluent) and negative controls treated only with the carrier diluent. ‘Formulation A’ included 10% neem oil by weight diluted in ethanol, ‘Formulation B’ contained 10% by volume of the concentrated Solution B described above diluted in ethanol (final concentration of 2.5% neem oil and 7% acetophenone by weight); ‘Formulation C’ included 1% by volume of the concentrated Solution B (final concentration of 0.25% neem oil and 0.7% acetophenone by weight); and ‘Formulation D’ included 0.1% by volume of the concentrated Solution B (final concentration of 0.025% neem oil and 0.07% acetophenone by weight).

Table 11 summarizes egg emergence and oviposition observations for the tested compositions and controls. Oviposition was seen on 10-day-old dry treatments of all the above solutions and controls, but was significantly reduced on the sample treated with a 10% dilution of Solution B (Formulation B). Eclosion was observed on both negative controls and Formulation A (neem oil only) treatments, and on dilutions of the concentrated Solution B of 0.1% (Formulation D) and lower concentrations. No egg emergence was exhibited on dilutions of 1.0% of the concentrated Solution B or more (Formulation B and C).

TABLE 11 Eclosion and Oviposition Observations of a Serial Dilution of an Exemplary Composition, Compared with Control and Neem Oil Alone, Observed 10-13 Days after Infestation. 10 Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day # eggs # emerged # eggs # emerged # eggs # emerged # eggs # emerged Negative Control 29 0 31 0 31 11 31 11 Formulation A 22 0 23 0 25 8 25 8 (10% Neem Oil) Formulation B 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 (2.5% Neem Oil + 7% Acetophenone) Formulation C 18 0 19 0 18 0 18 0 (0.25% Neem Oil + 0.7% Acetophenone) Formulation D 35 0 36 0 34 9 34 9 (0.025% Neem Oil + 0.07% Acetophenone)

Example 11—Prevention of Egg Emergence by Various Pesticidal Natural Oils

This example illustrates the prevention of egg emergence of formulations including a natural oil and acetophenone. Solutions were prepared according to Table 12 below, comprising 2.5% by weight active oil ingredient, 5.0% by weight solvent (either ethyl lactate or acetophenone), and an appropriate amount of water as a carrier diluent. Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowed to air dry for two hours. Five bed bug eggs were added to each treated dish, two hours after treatment. Immediately after infestation, and at 1-, 2-, and 3-week intervals thereafter, the numbers of hatched and unhatched eggs present in the sealed dishes were counted and compared to other Treated Groups. One egg was counted as “hatched” for every new nymph present in the petri dish when compared with the prior interval. Table 12 compares the mean % egg eclosion of the treated groups at three weeks post-infestation. The maximum mortality data obtained in Example 2, above, are included for each formulation, for comparison purposes.

All dishes treated with 2.5% by weight natural oils and 5.0% by weight ethyl lactate exhibited some eclosion at all weekly observation intervals (up to 80% eclosion for combinations of ethyl lactate with clove oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, lavender oil, and lime oil). Combinations of 2.5% by weight cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, anise oil, geraniol, and geranium oil with 5.0% acetophenone by weight resulted in complete prevention of egg eclosion across all observation intervals. Combinations of 2.5% by weight clove oil, eugenol, and oregano oil exhibited some increased prevention of egg emergence relative to solutions of ethyl lactate, although some egg emergence was observed. Solutions with 2.5% clove oil, eugenol, and oregano oil all exhibited complete prevention of egg eclosion when combined with 15.5% acetophenone by weight. Among those tested, the natural oils that exhibited stronger insecticidal activity on adult bed bugs also generally exhibited stronger ovicidal activity and prevention of egg emergence.

TABLE 12 Mean % Eclosion of Formulations Incorporating Various Natural Oils. Pesticidal Max % Eclosion (3 Natural Oil Solvent mortality weeks post-infest.) Cinnamon Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Cinnamon Oil Ethyl Lactate 100% 40% Clove Oil Acetophenone 100% 20% Clove Oil Ethyl Lactate 100% 80% Eugenol Acetophenone 100% 20% Eugenol Ethyl Lactate 100% 40% Oregano Oil Acetophenone 100% 20% Oregano Oil Ethyl Lactate 100% 40% Thyme Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Thyme Oil Ethyl Lactate 100% 80% Garlic Oil Acetophenone  90%  0% Garlic Oil Ethyl Lactate 100% 80% Anise Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Anise Oil Ethyl Lactate  30% 40% Geranium Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Geranium Oil Ethyl Lactate  90% 60% Lime Oil Acetophenone  89%  0% Lime Oil Ethyl Lactate  45% 80% Peppermint Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Peppermint Oil Ethyl Lactate  55% 60% Lavender Oil Acetophenone 100%  0% Lavender Oil Ethyl Lactate  40% 80% Neem Oil Acetophenone 100% N/A** Neem Oil Ethyl Lactate  40% N/A** Control None  30% 100%  **N/A: Test not performed

Example 12: Prevention of Egg Emergence with Various Solvents

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations including neem oil and various organic solvents including alcohols, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids. Solutions were prepared using 5.5% by weight neem oil; the percent by weight of organic solvent indicated in Table 13 and an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent. Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowing it to air dry for four hours. Five eggs were added to each treated dish, four hours after treatment. Immediately after infestation, and at 1-, 2-, and 3-week intervals thereafter, the numbers of hatched and unhatched eggs present in the sealed dishes were counted and compared to other Treated Groups. One egg was counted as “hatched” for every new nymph present in the petri dish when compared with the prior interval. Table 13 compares the % egg eclosion of the treated groups at the 3-week observation interval. The maximum mortality data obtained in Example 3, above, are included for comparison purposes.

A number of the tested organic solvents, from the classes of alcohols, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids, proved effective at preventing egg eclosion in combination with neem oil. Solvents that included at least one aryl group were generally more effective at preventing egg emergence than solvents that contained only alkyl groups. Alkyl aryl ketones were consistently effective solvents, and small aryl alcohols, aryl alkyl alcohols, aryl aryl ketones, and alkyl aryl esters also proved effective at preventing emergence in combination with neem oil. Among those tested, the organic solvents that exhibited stronger insecticidal activity on adult bed bugs generally also exhibited stronger ovicidal activity and prevention of egg emergence.

TABLE 13 % Bed Bug Egg Eclosion Observed 3 Weeks after Infestation. Class of % Solvent Max. % Solvent Formula (w/w) Compound name Mortality Eclosion Alcohol X = CH(OH) Alkyl Alk-X—H alcohols Alk = butyl 11.26 1-Butanol  40% 100%  Alk = hexyl 15.52 1-Hexanol  40% 0% Alk = ethyl-pentyl 19.78 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 100% 0% (Branched alkyl) Alk = decyl 24.04 1-Decanol 100% 0% Isoalcohols Alk₁-X-Alk₂ Alk₁ = ethyl 11.26 2-Butanol  20% 100%  Alk₂ = methyl Cyclohexanol 15.21 Cyclohexanol  60% 60%  Aryl alcohol Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 16.42 Benzyl alcohol 100% 0% Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk alcohol Ar = phenyl 18.56 1-Phenylethanol 100% 0% Alk = methyl Aldehyde and Ketone X = (C═O) Aldehyde Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 16.12 Benzaldehyde 100% 0% Alkyl-Alkyl Alk₁-X-Alk₂ ketone Alk₁ = methyl 19.17 Methylcyclohexylketone  70% 80%  Alk₂ = cyclohexyl Cyclohexanone 14.91 Cyclohexanone  50% 40%  Aryl-Alkyl Ar—X-Alk ketone Ar = phenyl 18.25 Acetophenone 100% 0% Alk = methyl Ar = 4-methylphenyl 20.38 4′-Methylacetophenone 100% 0% Alk = methyl Ar = 2,4- 22.51 2′,4′-Dimethylacetophenone 100% 0% dimethylphenyl Alk = methyl Ar = 3,4- 22.51 3′,4′-Dimethylacetophenone 100% 0% dimethylphenyl Alk = methyl Ar = phenyl 20.69 Propiophenone 100% 0% Alk = ethyl Ar = 4-methylphenyl 22.51 4′-Methylpropiophenone 100% 0% Alk = ethyl Ar = phenyl 22.51 Butyrophenone 100% 0% Alk = propyl Ar = phenyl 22.51 Isobutyrophenone 100% 0% Alk = isopropyl Ar = phenyl 24.64 Valerophenone 100% 0% Alk = butyl Ar = phenyl 26.77 Hexanophenone 100% 0% Alk = pentyl Aryl-aryl Ar₁—X—Ar₂ ketone Ar₁ = 2,4- 37.4 2,2′-4,4′ 100% 0% dihydroxyphenyl Tetrahydroxybenzophenone Ar₂ = 2,4- dihydroxyphenyl Carboxylic Acids and Esters X = (C═O)—O Alkyl-alkyl Alk₁-X-Alk₂ ester Alk₁ = methyl 13.38 Ethyl acetate  30% 100%  Alk₂ = ethyl Alk₁ = methyl 30.12 2-tert-Butylcyclohexylacetate 100% 20%  Alk₂ = 2-tert- butylcyclohexyl Aryl acid Ar—X—H Ar = phenyl 18.55 Benzoic acid 100% 0% Aryl-alkyl Ar—X-Alk ester Ar = 4-hydroxyphenyl 27.27 Propyl-4-hydroxybenzoate 100% 0% Alk = propyl

Example 13—Insecticidal Knockdown Activity

This example illustrates the insecticidal knockdown activity of combinations of neem oil or derivatives thereof with acetophenone against bed bugs, when compared with knockdown activity of neem oil or derivative alone and acetophenone alone. Six solutions were prepared: ‘Solution A’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight and 18.25% acetophenone by weight, and isopropanol as a carrier solvent; ‘Solution B’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight, 18.25% acetophenone by weight, and water as a carrier solvent; ‘Solution C’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight, and water as a carrier solvent; ‘Solution D’ included 18.25% acetophenone by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight, and water as a carrier solvent; ‘Solution F’ included 0.3% azadirachtin A by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight %, 18.25% acetophenone by weight, and water as a carrier solvent; and ‘Solution F’ included 0.3% azadirachtin A by weight, 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight, and water as a carrier solvent. Adult bed bugs were infested on to petri dishes containing filter paper, 90 millimetres in diameter. Bed bugs were treated by applying 5 microliters of each solution to the ventral side. Mortality was assessed at intervals of 30 minutes, and 1-, 2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, 10-, 24-, 100-, and 342-hours after treatment. Bed bugs were counted dead if unresponsive when stimulated. The percentage of dead adult bed bugs was calculated and compared to data from all other formulations. Table 14 summarizes mortality data of respective formulations at the stated intervals.

The neem/acetophenone (Solutions A and B) and azadirachtin/acetophenone (Solution C) combinations performed better as knockdown killers than neem alone (Solution D), acetophenone alone (Solution E), and azadirachtin alone (Solution F).

TABLE 14 % Mortality of Neem Oil and Azadirachtin as Knockdown Killers of Adult Bed Bugs. Time (hours) 0 0.5 1 2 4 6 8 10 24 100 342 % Mortality Solution A (5.5% neem oil, 0 80 80 80 80 90 90 100 100 100 100 18.25% acetophenone, 75% isopropanol) Solution B (5.5% neem oil, 18.25% 0 60 60 60 60 70 80 80 90 80 100 acetophenone, 75% water) Solution C (0.3% azadirachtin A, 0 30 30 30 30 40 70 80 100 100 100 18.25% acetophenone, 80.2% water) Solution D (5.5% neem oil, 0 30 40 40 50 50 50 50 50 60 50 93.25% water) Solution E (18.25% 0 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 30 30 100 acetophenone, 80.5% water) Solution F (0.3% azadirachtin A, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 98.45% water) Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Untreated Control 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Example 14—Broad Spectrum Pesticide Activity

This example illustrates the dry residue pesticidal activity of a combination of natural oil and solvent against arthropods (including insects) other than bed bugs. The tested arthropods were German cockroach (Blattella germanica). Smoky Brown cockroach (Periplaneta fuliginosa), American cockroach (Periplaneta americana), cellar spider (Pholcus phalangiodes) cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis), tick (Ixodidea family), fire ant (Solenopsis Invicta), termite (Reticulitermes flavipes), black carpenter ant (Camponotus pennsylvanicus), pavement ant (Tetramorium caespitum), field ant (Formica sp.), moisture ant (Lasius sp.), wood ant (Formica rufa), house fly (Musca domestica), bottle fly (Lucilia sericata), giant silverfish (Ctenolepisma longicaudata), firebrat (Thermobia domestica), bean aphid (Aphis fabae), and pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). A solution of 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 2.65% natural oils (lemongrass oil, vanillin, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent. 1.0 mL of the solution was applied to filter paper surfaces, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes (the Treated Groups). Untreated Control replicates were tested concurrently. Treated substrates were allowed to air dry for two hours prior to infestation with a known number of adult arthropods. Dishes were infested according to the following schedule: three replicates of three adults apiece were prepared for American and Smoky Brown cockroaches; three replicates of five adults apiece were prepared for German cockroaches; nine replicates of one adult apiece were prepared for cellar spiders; and three replicates of 10 adults apiece were prepared for ticks, ants, termites, flies, aphids, silverfish, firebrats, and cat fleas. At 1-, 4-, and 24-hour intervals following the addition of arthropods, the number of arthropods killed in the intervening period was observed. The adult arthropods were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult arthropods was calculated for 1-, 4-, and 24-hour intervals following infestation and compared for efficacy to the data of the Control Groups. Table 15 summarizes the mean mortality data of the treatment against each arthropod at the stated intervals. The tested composition killed 100% of all arthropods by the 24-hour observation interval, and exhibited strong pesticidal activity against some species at the 4-hour observation interval.

TABLE 15 Mean % Mortality of 2-Hour Dried Compositions Against Arthropods. Treated/ Mean % Mortality Insect Control 0 hrs 1 hrs 4 hrs 24 hrs Smoky Brown cockroach Treated 0 0 45 100 Smoky Brown cockroach Control 0 0 0 0 German cockroach Treated 0 0 93 100 German cockroach Control 0 0 0 0 American cockroach Treated 0 0 66 100 American cockroach Control 0 0 0 0 Cellar Spider Treated 0 11 33 100 Cellar Spider Control 0 0 0 33 Cat Flea Treated 0 100 100 100 Cat Flea Control 0 0 0 0 Tick Treated 0 7 100 100 Tick Control 0 0 0 0 Fire Ant Treated 0 100 100 100 Fire Ant Control 0 0 10 100 Termite Treated 0 100 100 100 Termite Control 0 0 20 20 Carpenter Ant Treated 0 10 80 100 Carpenter Ant Control 0 0 0 0 Pavement Ant Treated 0 100 100 100 Pavement Ant Control 0 0 0 0 Field Ant Treated 0 100 100 100 Field Ant Control 0 0 0 0 Moisture Ant Treated 0 100 100 100 Moisture Ant Control 0 0 0 70 Wood Ant Treated 0 100 100 100 Wood Ant Control 0 0 0 0 House Fly Treated 0 55 100 100 House Fly Control 0 0 0 80 Bottle Fly Treated 0 95 100 100 Bottle Fly Control 0 0 0 0 Giant Silverfish Treated 0 0 22 100 Giant Silverfish Control 0 0 0 0 Firebrat Treated 0 0 40 100 Firebrat Control 0 0 0 0 Bean aphid Treated 0 10 25 100 Bean aphid Control 0 0 0 22 Pea Aphid Treated 0 0 95 100 Pea Aphid Control 0 0 0 33

Example 15—Broad Spectrum Pesticide Activity

This example illustrates the dry residue pesticidal activity of a combination of natural oil and solvent against arthropods (including insects, arachnids, millipedes and centipedes) other than bed bugs. The tested arthropods were granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius), maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais), confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum), rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes ferrugineus), dust mite (Dermatophagoides farinae), millipede (Cylindroiulus caeruleocinctus), centipede (Strigamia aluminata), sowbug (Oniscus asellus), orabatid mite (Haplozeter sp.), house cricket (Acheta domestica), black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans), brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa), pharaoh ant (Monomorium pharaonis).

A solution of 5.5% neem oil by weight, 18.25% acetophenone by weight and 1.25% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent (“treatment A”), or alternatively, a solution comprising 22% neem oil by weight, 73% acetophenone by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight (“treatment B”) was prepared. 0.64-1.2 mL of the solution was applied to filter paper surfaces, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes (the Treated Groups). Untreated Control replicates were tested concurrently.

Treated substrates were allowed to air dry for 2 hours (treatment A) or 4 hours (treatment B) prior to infestation with a known number of adult arthropods. Dishes were infested according to the following schedule: five replicates of five adults apiece were prepared for granary weevils, maize weevils, confused flour beetles and rusty grain beetles; three replicates of 10 adults apiece were prepared for millipedes; four replicates of 5 adults apiece were prepared for centipedes and pharaoh ants; 6 replicates of 5 adults apiece were prepared for sowbugs and dust mites; one replicate of 30 adults was prepared for orabatid mites; two replicates of 5 adults apiece were prepared for house crickets; and 20 replicates of 1 adult apiece were prepared for black widow spiders and brown recluse spiders. At 1-, 4-, and 24-hour intervals following the addition of arthropods, the number of arthropods killed in the intervening period was observed. The adult arthropods were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult arthropods was calculated for 1-, 4-, and 24-hour intervals following infestation and compared for efficacy to the data of the Control Groups. Table 16 summarizes the mean mortality data of the treatment against each arthropod at the stated intervals. The tested composition killed 100% of all arthropods by the 24-hour observation interval, and exhibited strong pesticidal activity against some species at the 1- and 4-hour observation interval.

TABLE 16 Mean % Mortality of 2- or 4-Hour Dried Compositions Against Arthropods Treated/ Mean % Mortality Insect Control 0 hrs 1 hrs 4 hrs 24 hrs Granary Weevil Treated 0 100 100 100 Granary Weevil Control 0 0 0 0 Maize Weevil Treated 0 100 100 100 Maize Weevil Control 0 0 0 0 Confused Flour Beetle Treated 0 0 0 100 Confused Flour Beetle Control 0 0 0 0 Rusty Grain Beetle Treated 0 100 100 100 Rusty Grain Beetle Control 0 0 0 0 Dust Mite Treated 0 100 100 100 Dual Mite Control 0 0 3 7 Millipede* Treated 0 0 83 100 Millipede* Control 0 0 3 13 Centipede* Treated 0 10 100 100 Centipede* Control 0 0 0 5 Sowbug* Treated 0 0 100 100 Sowbug* Control 0 0 0 0 Orabatid Mite* Treated 0 73 100 100 Orabatid Mite* Control 0 0 0 0 House Cricket* Treated 0 80 100 100 House Cricket* Control 0 0 0 0 Black Widow Spider* Treated 0 0 0 100 Black Widow Spider* Control 0 0 0 0 Brown Recluse Spider* Treated 0 0 0 80 Brown Recluse Spider* Control 0 0 0 0 Pharaoh Ant* Treated 0 0 95 100 Pharaoh Ant* Control 0 0 0 0 (no asterisk = exposed to 2 h dry residual treatment A) (*= exposed to 4 h dry residual treatment B)

Example 16—Dry Residual Pesticide Activity Against Insecticide-Resistant Insects

This example illustrates the dry residue pesticidal activity of exemplary compositions against bed bugs resistant to pyrethroid insecticides, a recognized problem in eliminating bed bug infestations (see Romero). A formulation of 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared and combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent (the Treated Group). A concentrate formulation of the common pyrethroid insecticide Suspend® SC containing 4.75% deltamethrin by weight diluted according to the highest (strongest) rate allowed by the label was employed as a Positive Control Group. 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to filter paper surfaces, 90 millimetres in diameter, contained in petri dishes, and allowed to dry for two hours. Five replicates of each Treated Group, Positive Control Group, and a Negative Control Group were tested concurrently. Adult bed bugs from a field-collected strain were added to each treated surface. Mortality of bed bugs was observed at specified intervals after infestation on substrates. The adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult bed bugs at 0-, 1-, 4-, 8-, 12-, 24-, and 72-hour intervals on Treated Group were compared against those infested on the Positive Control (deltamethrin-treated) and Negative Control Groups. FIG. 3 summarizes the results as tested on filter paper. Bed bugs infested on deltamethrin (Positive Control Group) exhibited mean mortality of 10% by the 72-hour interval, which was statistically insignificant in comparison with Negative Controls. The tested formulation including neem oil and acetophenone produced 100% mortality by the 24-hour interval.

Example 17—Repellency of Exemplary Compositions

This example illustrates the repellency characteristics of an exemplary composition according to one embodiment. Where it is desired to have an insecticide act by killing or otherwise disrupting the life cycle of adult insects, nymphs, and their eggs, rather than merely dispersing them, repellent characteristics of the composition utilized may be reduced or minimized in some embodiments.

In this example, bed bug mortality was evaluated on a treated surface with an untreated crevice harbourage available, and the percentage of bed bugs that retreated to the untreated crevice was measured to evaluate the repellency of the tested compositions. Four solutions were prepared, each containing isopropanol as a carrier diluent: ‘Solution A’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 5.0% surfactant by weight; ‘Solution B’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, and 5.0% surfactant by weight; ‘Solution C’ included 5.5% neem oil by weight, and 5.0% surfactant by weight; and ‘Solution D’ included 5.5% neem oil alone by weight. The surfactant used in all solutions was ethoxylated castor oil. Ninety-millimetre diameter filter paper substrates were prepared in petri dishes, on which were affixed small wooden blocks notched on one side, the notch forming a small crevice out of contact with the filter paper where insects could shelter. For the Treated Groups 1.0 mL of each solution was applied to the exterior of the block, leaving the crevice untreated, and 1.0 mL of each solution was applied directly to the filter paper substrate. A fifth untreated group was tested concurrently as a negative Control Group. Treated substrates were allowed to dry for two hours before infestation with adult bed bugs.

Immediately after treatment and at 1-, 4-, and 8-hour intervals after infestation of bed bugs to each group, the bed bugs were observed for mortality and whether they preferred to stay on the treated filter paper, or locate within the untreated crevice. Table 17 summarizes the observations of each Group immediately after infestation and at 1-, 4-, and 8-hour intervals post-infestation. Compositions A and B, which included neem oil in combination with acetophenone, exhibited a lesser degree of repellency (i.e. fewer bed bugs were counted in the untreated crevice) than compositions including neem oil alone, with or without surfactant (compositions C and D).

TABLE 17 Mean Repellency Data. 0-hour 1-hour 4-hour 8-hour % % % % % % % Live Live Live % Live Live Live Live Live In Out In Out % In Out % In Out % Solution Crev. Crev. Crev. Crev. Dead Crev. Crev. Dead Crev. Crev. Dead A 0 100 0 100 0 0 22 78 0 0 100 B 0 100 10 90 0 0 0 100 0 0 100 C 0 100 40 60 0 70 30 0 20 10 70 D 0 100 100 0 0 80 20 0 60 0 40 Control 0 100 50 50 0 50 50 0 60 40 0

Example 18—Testing of Various Substrates

This example illustrates the pesticidal activity of a composition according to an exemplary embodiment on a variety of surfaces. In particular, the example demonstrates the dry residue pesticidal activity of an exemplary formulation on several substrates where bed bugs are known to live, nest, and reproduce indoors. A solution including 5.5% neem oil by weight, 15.5% acetophenone by weight, 8% natural oils (lemongrass oil, spearmint oil, clove oil, and wintergreen oil) by weight and 5.0% ethoxylated castor oil by weight was prepared and combined with an appropriate amount of isopropyl alcohol as a carrier diluent. Four substrates were prepared: painted plywood, 100% cotton fabric, mattress swatch, and Berber carpet (glued to the petri dish to prevent the test bugs from climbing underneath the carpet to escape the treated area). Five replicates were constructed for each Treated Group and five replicates were constructed for untreated Control Groups of each substrate. 1.0 mL of the formulation was applied to each Treated Group and allowed to dry for two hours. Adult bed bugs were infested two hours after treatment. Bed bugs were observed for mortality immediately after infestation and at 1-, 4-, 8-, 12-, 24-, and 72-hour intervals post-infestation. Bed bugs were counted dead if unresponsive when stimulated.

The percentage of dead adult bed bugs was calculated for each interval and compared to the data for all other groups. Table 18 presents the mean mortality data for the Treated and Control Groups over the stated intervals. Mortality of adult bed bugs for all Treated Groups was 100% at 24 hours and 100% for all treated surfaces excepting glued carpet (80% mortality) at 12 hours. This data indicates efficacy of the tested composition on a wide range of indoor surfaces.

TABLE 18 Mean % Bed Bug Mortality after Treatment on Various Substrates. Time (Hours) 0 1 4 8 12 24 72 Untreated 0 2 6 4 4 6 6 Plywood Treated 0 2 58 98 100 100 100 Plywood Untreated 0 0 2 2 6 8 16 Cotton Treated 0 28 82 100 100 100 100 Cotton Untreated 0 2 2 4 4 4 12 Mattress Treated 0 42 98 100 100 100 100 Mattress Untreated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Glued Carpet Treated Glued 0 0 0 30 80 100 100 Carpet

Example 19—Residual Activity of Various Solvent/Oil Combinations

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations comprising varying pesticidal natural oils (oregano, clove and cinnamon oils) with acetophenone as the polar aromatic solvent. Solutions were prepared using 5.5% by weight natural oil; the percent by weight of acetophenone indicated in Table 19 and an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent. The percent by weight of solvent was at a final concentration of 1.5 mol/kg. Solutions were also prepared of each natural oil alone (5.5% by weight with an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent), and of acetophenone alone (the percent by weight indicated in Table 19 with an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent). Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowing it to air dry for four hours. A known number of adults (usually 10) were added to each treated dish, four hours after treatment. Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 1-hour, 2-hour, 4-hour, 6-hour, 8-hour, 10 hour, 12-hour, and 24-hour intervals, and at 24-hour intervals thereafter until 14 days after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 19 shows the maximum % mortality of all treated groups and the time taken to reach maximum mortality. Combinations of a pesticidal oil and acetophenone were more effective than either the oil or acetophenone alone.

TABLE 19 Maximum % Mortality of Various Oils Alone or With Acetophenone Solvent Max Oil Solvent % w/w Mortality Time LT50 Oil Controls Oregano oil — — 100% 72 h 18 h Clove oil — — 100% 53 h 17 h Cinnamon — —  90% 218 h  22 h oil Oil + Acetophenone Oregano oil Acetophenone 18.25 100% 24 h  6 h Clove oil Acetophenone 18.25 100% 24 h  8 h Cinnamon Acetophenone 18.25 100% 53 h  8 h oil — Acetophenone 18.25 100% 53 h 17 h

Example 20—Residual Activity of Various Oils in Combination with Acetophenone

This example illustrates the dry residual pesticidal activity of formulations comprising further pesticidal natural oils (thyme, garlic and neem oils) with acetophenone as the polar aromatic solvent. Solutions were prepared using 5.5% by weight natural oil; the percentage by weight of organic solvent indicated in Table 20 and an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent. Solvent was added to a final concentration of 1.5 mol/kg. Solutions were also prepared of each natural oil alone (5.5% by weight with an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent), and of the polar organic solvent alone (the percent by weight indicated in Table 20 with an appropriate amount of isopropanol as a carrier diluent). Treated Groups for each solution were prepared by treating filter paper, 90 mm in diameter, with 1.0 mL of solution and allowing it to air dry for four hours. A known number of adults (usually 10) were added to each treated dish, four hours after treatment. Bed bug mortality was assessed immediately after infestation and at 1-hour, 2-hour, 4-hour, 6-hour, 8-hour, 10 hour, 12-hour, and 24-hour intervals, and at 24-hour intervals thereafter until 14 days after infestation. Adult bed bugs were counted dead if they were unresponsive when stimulated. Table 20 shows the maximum % mortality of all treated groups and the time taken to reach maximum mortality. Combinations of a pesticidal oil and acetophenone were more effective than either the oil or acetophenone alone.

TABLE 20 Maximum % Mortality of Various Oils Alone or With Acetophenone Solvent Max Oil Solvent % w/w Mortality Time LT50 Oil Controls Oregano oil — 100%  24 h  8 h Clove oil — 100% 150 h 27 h Cinnamon — 100% 150 h 37 h oil Thyme — 100% 150 h 36 h Garlic — 100% 150 h 22 h Neem oil —  10% — — Oil + Acetophenone Thyme Acetophenone 18.25 100%  10 h  6 h Garlic Acetophenone 18.25 100%  10 h  7 h Neem oil Acetophenone 18.25 100%  8 h  4 h — Acetophenone 18.25 100%  48 h 11 h

Various references are mentioned or pertinent to the discussion herein, including for example the References listed below. The disclosures of each of the following references are incorporated by reference in their entireties.

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The invention described herein is not to be limited in scope by the specific aspects herein disclosed, since these aspects are intended as illustrations of several aspects of the invention. Any equivalent aspects are intended to be within the scope of this invention. Various modifications of embodiments of the invention in addition to those shown and described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description. Such modifications are also intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims and any claims hereafter introduced. To the extent that they are not mutually exclusive, embodiments described above can be combined with one another to yield further embodiments of the invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of killing arthropods consisting essentially of exposing the arthropods and/or their eggs to a pesticidal composition consisting essentially of benzyl alcohol and an oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil.
 2. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a surfactant, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the surfactant is selected from the group consisting of ethoxylated castor oil, sodium lauryl sulfate, saponin, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated fatty esters, and alkoxylated glycols, ethoxylated fatty acids, carboxylated alcohols, ethoxlylated alkylphenols, sodium dodecylsulfide.
 3. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a diluent, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the diluent is selected from the group consisting of water and isopropanol.
 4. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a carrier, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the carrier is selected from the group consisting of citric acid, lactic acid, glycerol, castor oil, benzoic acid, carbonic acid, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated amides, glycerides, benzene, butanol, 1-propanol, hexanol, other alcohols, dimethyl ether, and polyethylene glycol.
 5. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of an odor masking agent, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the odor masking agent is selected from the group consisting of vanilla extract, wintergreen oil, spearmint oil, peppermint oil, clove oil, lemongrass oil, and a combination thereof.
 6. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the arthropods are insects or arachnids or centipedes.
 7. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the arthropods are bed bugs, cellar spiders, cat fleas, ticks, fire ants, termites, pavement ants, field ants, moisture ants, wood ants, firebrats, odorous house ants, carpenter ants, pharaoh ants, Argentine ants, mosquitoes, sowbugs, pillbugs, centipedes, spiders, silverfish, scorpions, cockroaches, whiteflies, flies, aphids, scabies, lice, stink bugs, moths, beetles, lace bugs, western floral thrips, leafminers, grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, leafhoppers, planthoppers, psyllids, scale insects, midges, earworms, bollworms, armyworms, budworms, hornworms, milkweed bugs, mealy bugs, weevils, botflies, rice bugs, coffee bugs, vegetable bugs, corn borers, or mites.
 8. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the arthropods are bed bugs.
 9. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the composition is applied in liquid form.
 10. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the composition is applied in vapor form.
 11. A method of killing bed bugs, cockroaches, fleas, ants, silverfish, firebrats, aphids, termites, weevils, beetles, mites, millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, crickets, or spiders comprising applying a pesticidal composition consisting essentially of benzyl alcohol and an oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil to the bed bugs, cockroaches, fleas, ants, silverfish, firebrats, aphids, termites, weevils, beetles, mites, millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, crickets, or spiders to effectively kill the bed bugs, cockroaches, fleas, ants, silverfish, firebrats, aphids, termites, weevils, beetles, mites, millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, crickets, or spiders, wherein the benzyl alcohol to oil ratio is 2.5:1 to 7:1.
 12. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a surfactant, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the surfactant is selected from the group consisting of ethoxylated castor oil, sodium lauryl sulfate, saponin, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated fatty esters, alkoxylated glycols, ethoxylated fatty acids, carboxylated alcohols, ethoxlylated alkylphenols, and sodium dodecylsulfide.
 13. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a diluent, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the diluent is selected from the group consisting of water and isopropanol.
 14. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of a carrier, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the carrier is selected from the group consisting of citric acid, lactic acid, glycerol, castor oil, benzoic acid, carbonic acid, ethoxylated alcohols, ethoxylated amides, glycerides, benzene, butanol, 1-propanol, hexanol, other alcohols, dimethyl ether, and polyethylene glycol.
 15. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the pesticidal composition further consists essentially of an odor masking agent, the benzyl alcohol, and the oil selected from the group consisting of neem oil, oregano oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, thyme oil, garlic oil, wintergreen oil, lemongrass oil, lavender oil, lime oil, geranium oil, and anise oil, wherein the odor masking agent is selected from the group consisting of vanilla extract, wintergreen oil, spearmint oil, peppermint oil, clove oil, lemongrass oil, and a combination thereof.
 16. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the arthropods are bed bugs.
 17. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the composition is applied in liquid form.
 18. The method as defined in claim 11, wherein the composition is applied in vapor form. 